NATIONAL PARK SERVICE ADMINISTRATIVE POLICIES for Natural Areas of the National Park System

DISCUSSION

The preservation of natural areas is a fundamental requirement for their continued use and enjoyment as unimpaired natural areas. Park management, therefore, looks first to the care and management of the natural resources of a park. The concept of preservation of a total environment, as compared with the protection of an individual feature or species, is a distinguishing feature of national park management.

In earlier times, the establishment of a park and the protection of its forests and wildlife from careless disturbance were sufficient to insure its preservation as a natural area. The impact of man on the natural scene was negligible since the parks were surrounded by vast undeveloped lands, and there were comparatively few visitors. This condition prevails no more, for the parks are fast becoming islands of primitive America increasingly influenced by resource use practices around their borders, and by the impact of increasing millions of visitors.

Passive protection is not enough. Active management of the natural environment, plus a sensitive application of discipline in park planning, use, and development, are requirements for today.

The resource management task thus embraces:

1. Safeguarding forests, wildlife, and natural features against impairment or destruction.

2. The application of ecological management techniques to neutralize the unnatural influences of man, thus permitting the natural environment to be maintained essentially by nature.

3. Master planning for the appropriate allocation of lands to various purposes in a park, and in the character and location of use areas as needed for developments.

ADMINISTRATIVE POLICIES

Plant and Animal Resources
Natural areas shall be managed so as to conserve, perpetuate, and portray as a composite whole the indigenous aquatic and terrestrial fauna and flora and the scenic landscape.

Management will minimize, give direction to, or control those changes in the native environment and scenic landscape resulting from human influences on natural processes of ecological succession. Missing native life forms may be reestablished, where practicable. Native environmental complexes will be restored, protected, and maintained, where practicable, at levels determined through historical and ecological research of plant-animal relationships. Non-native species may not be introduced into natural areas. Where they have become established or threaten invasion of a natural area, an appropriate management plan should be developed to control them, where feasible.

Commercial harvesting of timber is not permitted except where the cutting of timber "is required in order to control the attacks of insects or diseases or otherwise to conserve the scenery or the natural or historic objects" in a natural area, such as in the case of severe "blow-downs." (See also Landscape Management, p. 19, this section; Fishing, p. 25, Fish and Wildlife Management Policy section; Disposal of Resources, p. 44, Resource Use Policy section; and Non-native Plants and Animals, p. 56, and Timber Harvesting, p. 58, Wilderness Use and Management Policy section.)

Fire
The presence or absence of natural fire within a given habitat is recognized as one of the ecological factors contributing to the perpetuation of plants and animals native to that habitat.

Fires in vegetation resulting from natural causes are recognized as natural phenomena and may be allowed to run their course when such burning can be contained within predetermined fire management units and when such burning will contribute to the accomplishment of approved vegetation and/or wildlife management objectives.

Prescribed burning to achieve approved vegetation and/or wildlife management objectives may be employed as a substitute for natural fire.

Fire Control
Any fire threatening cultural resources or physical facilities of a natural area or any fire burning within a natural area and posing a threat to any resources or physical facilities outside that area will be controlled and extinguished.

The Service will cooperate in programs to control or extinguish any fire originating on lands adjacent to a natural area posing a threat to natural or cultural resources or physical facilities of that area.

Any fire in a natural area other than one employed in the management of vegetation and/or wildlife of that area will be controlled and extinguished. (See Fire Control, p. 56, Wilderness Use and Management Policy section.)

Grazing
Domestic livestock grazing competes with native wildlife and impedes the effort in natural areas to achieve an ecological balance. Accordingly, grazing of domestic livestock in natural areas is permitted only where it is sanctioned by law, is incidental to visitor use, or is desirable to preserve and interpret significant historical resources of the area. Where grazing has been permitted and its continuation is not specifically covered by the aforestated conditions, it should be eliminated through orderly and cooperative procedures with the individuals concerned. Support of Service or concessioner pack-and-saddle stock by the use of forage in a natural area shall be limited to locations where dry feeding is clearly impractical. (See also Agricultural Uses, this page; Land Classification, p. 32, Master Plan Policy section; and Grazing, p. 58, Wilderness Use and Management Policy section.)

Agricultural Uses
Agricultural uses, including domestic livestock raising, may be permitted in natural areas only where they are desirable to perpetuate and interpret significant historical resources, are permitted by law, or are required pursuant to acquisition agreements or similar documents. (See also Grazing, this page).

Solid-waste Disposal
Refuse generated from operations within a natural area shall be disposed of by approved methods outside the area, where practicable and feasible. Refuse disposal within the area, where necessary, shall be accomplished by incineration or sanitary landfill, or through modification of these methods, as appropriate.

Off-road Use of Motorized Equipment
Public use of motor vehicles shall be confined to designated park roads or other designated overland routes exclusive of foot trails and bridle trails. Public use of portable power equipment, such as generators and powersaws, may be permitted in specifically designated areas. (See also Rescue and Other Emergency Operations, p. 56, and Motorized Equipment, p. 58, Wilderness Use and Management Policy section.)

The off-road use of motorized equipment for official purposes shall be carefully planned and controlled to meet the requirements of area management with due regard for the protection of human life and park resources. (See also Motorized Equipment, p. 58, Wilderness Use and Management Policy section.)

Cultural Resources
Where significant cultural resources are present in a natural area and are worthy of preservation for their historical value, they shall be protected and presented for public understanding, appreciation, and enjoyment to the extent compatible with the primary purpose of the area. In such cases, the management and use of the cultural resources will be patterned after the management and use of similar resources in historical areas.

Soil and Moisture Conservation
Programs will be conducted for the prevention and correction of erosion and soil or vegetation deterioration resulting from unnatural causes.

A natural area may participate in the program of a Grasslands Conservation District or Soil Conservation District when the purposes, plans, programs, and operation of the District are consistent with the purposes of the natural area and the policies for its management and use. (See also Plant and Animal Resources, p. 17, this section; Landscape Management, this page; Water Development Projects, p. 58, Wilderness Use and Management Policy section; and Nonpark Uses and Development, p. 62, Physical Developments Policy section.)

Quality of Environment
To achieve the purpose of a natural area, i.e., preservation and appropriate public use, planning and management should be related to the total environment in which the area is located. (See also Master Plan Policy section, p. 31.) Such planning and management recognize the need for transportation arteries; utility and communication corridors; consumptive resource uses; and residential, commercial, and recreation land uses in the environs of the park as parts of a systematic plan assuring viability and good health of the park and the surrounding region.

The Service should be alert to peripheral use and development proposals that impinge on the environment of a natural area. Moreover, it should cooperate with, and encourage joint and regional planning among, public agencies, organizations, and individuals having responsibility for maintaining the quality and esthetics of the environment surrounding natural areas.

Landscape Management
When consistent with and not materially disruptive of the maintenance of natural ecological associations of the area, landscape management will be practiced to erase, ameliorate, or conceal the scars and visual impact of structures, facilities, and construction activities related thereto which impinge on the natural scene. (See also Congressional Policies, p. 12; Plant and Animal Resources, p. 17, this section; Architectural Theme, p. 60, and Concession Facilities, p. 61, Physical Developments Policy section; and Road and Trail Policy section, p. 63.)

Water Pollution Abatement and Control
The Service will strive to maintain quality of all waters (1) originating within the boundaries of natural areas through

(a) provision of adequate sewage treatment and disposal for all public-use facilities, including self-contained boat sewage storage units;

(b) control of erosion;

(c) regulation and control, as necessary, of fuel-burning water craft;

(d) avoidance of contamination by lethal substances, such as certain insectides;

(e) regulation of the intensity of use in certain areas and at certain times when determined as being necessary based on water quality monitoring;

and (2) flowing through or bounding on natural areas

(a) by applying the methods listed under 1(a) to (e) above;

(b) consistent with the purposes of the natural area and the policies for its management and use by entering into cooperative agreements or compacts with other agencies and governing bodies for cooperative measures to avoid water pollution. (See also Recreation Advisory Council Policy Circular No. 3 of April 9, 1964, Appendix G, and Soil and Moisture Conservation, p. 19, this section.)

Air Pollution
The Service will work with others within the regional air shed to reduce air pollution from sources within the area and elsewhere in the air shed. Fumes and smoke from campfires, refuse burning, and other kinds of combustion will be controlled in public-use areas to the extent necessary to maintain clean air.

Mineral Exploration, Mineral Leasing, and Mining
Except where authorized by law or when carried on pursuant to valid existing rights or as part of an interpretive program, mineral prospecting, mining, and the extraction of minerals or the removal of soil, sand, gravel, and rock will not be permitted. (See also Mining and Prospecting, p. 57, Wilderness Use and Management Policy section.)

Forest Insect and Disease Control
Native forest insects and diseases existing under natural conditions are natural elements of the ecosystem. Accordingly, populations of native insects and the incidence of native diseases will be allowed to function unimpeded, except when control is required (1) to prevent the loss of the host from the ecosystem; (2) to prevent the complete alteration of an environment which is expected to be preserved; (3) to prevent outbreaks of the insect or disease from spreading to forests or trees outside the area; (4) to preserve rare, scientifically valuable, or specimen trees, or unique forest communities; (5) to maintain a suitable overstory, shade, or ornamental trees of Class I and II lands; and (6) to preserve trees significant to the maintenance of historical integrity of Class VI sites.

Where non-native insects or diseases have become established or threaten to invade a natural area, appropriate measures will be taken to control or eradicate them where feasible.

No insect or disease control activities may be undertaken in wilderness areas without the approval of the Director.

Any controls instituted will be those which will be most direct for the target insect or disease and which will have minimal effect upon other components of the ecosystem.

Physical Resources
To the extent possible, the physical natural resources in a natural area shall be maintained in a natural state for their inherent educational, scientific, and inspirational values, and as a medium for supporting the diversity and the continuation of life processes.

DISCUSSION

In the Yellowstone National Park legislation of 1872, the Congress charged the Secretary of the Interior to "* * * provide against the wanton destruction of the fish and game found within said park, and against their capture or destruction for the purposes of merchandise or profit."

The act of May 7, 1894 (28 Stat. 73), amending the original Yellowstone legislation, provides, in part, as follows:

Sec. 4 That all hunting, or the killing, wounding, or capturing at any time of any bird or wild animal except dangerous animals, when it is necessary to prevent them from destroying human life or inflicting an injury, is prohibited within the limits of said park; nor shall any fish be taken out of the waters of the park * * * in any other way than by hook and line, and then only at such seasons and in such times and manner as may be directed by the Secretary of the Interior. That the Secretary of the Interior shall make and publish such rules and regulations as he may deem necessary and proper for the management and care of the park and for the protection of the property therein, * * * and for the protection of the animals and birds in the park from capture or destruction, or to prevent their being frightened or driven from the park; and he shall make rules and regulations governing the taking of fish from the streams or lakes in the park * * *.

Congressional policies similar to those enunciated in the 1894 act were prescribed for many of the other national parks as they were established.

Provisions of Article III of the Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere Between the United States of America and Other American Republics likewise "* * * prohibit hunting, killing and capturing of members of the fauna and destruction or collection of representatives of the flora in national parks except by or under the direction or control of the park authorities, or for duly authorized scientific investigations." (See also Treaty Series 981, Appendix C.)

In the 1950 Grand Teton National Park legislation, the Congress reaffirmed its traditional policy relating to recreational public hunting in the national parks. The Congress did provide, however, that in the elk management program for the park the Secretary of the Interior should engage Wyoming State licensed hunters deputized as park rangers in the controlled reduction of elk when in the proper management and protection of the elk it was found to be necessary to carry out a program of direct reduction. Thus, recreational public hunting has not been approved by the Congress as an appropriate park visitor use in the natural area category of the System.

On the other hand, sport fishing has been an approved park visitor use in such areas since the establishment of Yellowstone National Park.

In implementing these laws, the National Park Service at the outset concentrated on a program of wildlife protection, which in that era was certainly the most obvious need in wildlife conservation, i.e., protecting the wildlife populations from public hunting and protecting their habitat from wildfire. Experience over several decades of park management has demonstrated, however, that protection, though it is important, is not in itself a substitute for adequate habitat.

In 1962, the Secretary appointed an Advisory Board to study and make recommendations on the Wildlife Management Policy in the National Parks. The Advisory Board consisted of Dr. A. Starker Leopold, Chairman (University of California), Dr. Stanley A. Cain (University of Michigan), Dr. Ira N. Gabrielson (President, Wildlife Management Institute), Dr. Clarence M. Cottam (Chairman, National Parks Association), and Thomas L. Kimball (Executive Director, National Wildlife Federation). (See Appendix D for full text of report.)

The Secretary, on May 2, 1963, approved the recommendations of the Advisory Board on Wildlife Management in the National Parks and directed that they be incorporated in the administrative policies of the Service.

Also, the Secretary, on June 17, 1968, issued a policy statement applicable to public lands administered by certain Bureaus of the Department (including the National Park Service), as follows:

A. In all areas administered by the Secretary of the Interior through the National Park Service, the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, the Bureau of Land Management, and the Bureau of Reclamation, except the National Parks, the National Monuments, and historic areas of the National Park System, the Secretary shall—

1. Provide that public hunting of resident wildlife and fishing shall be permitted within statutory limitations in a manner that is compatible with and not in conflict with, the primary objectives as declared by the Congress for which such areas are reserved or acquired;

2. Provide that public hunting, fishing, and possession of fish and resident wildlife shall be in accordance with applicable State laws and regulations, unless the Secretary finds, after consultation with appropriate State fish and game departments, that he must close such areas to such hunting and fishing or restrict public access thereto for such purposes;

3. Provide that a State license or permit, as provided by State law, shall be required for the public hunting, fishing, and possession of fish and resident wildlife on such areas;

4. Provide for consultation with the appropriate State fish and game department in the development of cooperative management plans for limiting over-abundant or harmful populations of fish and resident wildlife thereon, including the disposition of the carcasses thereof, and, except in emergency situations, secure the State's concurrence in such plans; and

5. Provide for consultation with the appropriate State fish and game department in carrying out research programs involving the taking of fish and resident wildlife, including the disposition of the carcasses thereof, and secure the State's concurrence in such programs.

B. In the case of the National Parks, National Monuments, and historic areas of the National Park System, the Secretary shall—

1. Provide, where public fishing is permitted, that such fishing shall be carried out in accordance with applicable State laws and regulations, unless exclusive legislative jurisdiction* has been ceded for such area, and a State license or permit shall be required for such fishing, unless otherwise provided by law;

2. Prohibit public hunting; and

3. Provide for consultation with the appropriate State fish and game departments in carrying out programs of control of over-abundant or otherwise harmful populations of fish and resident wildlife or research programs involving the taking of such fish and resident wildlife, including the disposition of carcasses therefrom.

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*The term "exclusive legislative jurisdiction" is applicable to situations wherein the Federal Government has received, by whatever method, all the authority of the State, with no reservation made to the State except the right to serve process resulting from activities which occurred off the land involved. This term is applied notwithstanding that the State may exercise certain authority over the land, as may other States over land similarly situated, in consonance with the several Federal statutes. The term is also sometimes referred to as "partial jurisdiction."

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In any case where there is a disagreement, such disagreement shall be referred to the Secretary of the Interior who shall provide for a thorough discussion of the problems with representatives of the State fish and game departments and the National Park Service for the purpose of resolving the disagreement.

ADMINISTRATIVE POLICIES

Fishing
Sport fishing is encouraged in natural areas when consistent with the restoration and perpetuation of the natural aquatic environments and the natural aquatic life. Commercial fishing is permitted only when specifically authorized by law.

Where fishing is permitted, such fishing shall be carried out in accordance with applicable State laws and regulations, unless exclusive jurisdiction, as that term is defined in the Secretary's policy statement of June 17, 1968, has been ceded within the area, and a State license or permit shall be required for such fishing unless otherwise provided by law. (See also Fishing, p. 57, Wilderness Use and Management Policy section.)

Public Hunting
Public hunting shall not be permitted in natural areas. (See also Hunting, p. 58, Wilderness Use and Management Policy section.)

Wildlife Populations
Wildlife populations will be controlled when necessary to maintain the health of the species, the native environment, and the scenic landscape, and to safeguard public health and safety. Ungulate populations will be maintained at the level that the range will carry in good health and without impairment to the soil, the vegetation, or to habitats of the several species in an area.

Wildlife Management Program
Insofar as possible, control through natural predation will be encouraged. Public hunting outside of the area is recognized as the next most desirable means of controlling wildlife populations. Cooperative studies and management plans with States and other Federal agencies are to be continued to facilitate public hunting outside of the areas, especially through extended special seasons established by the States for public hunting outside the areas.

Other control measures, as necessary, shall be undertaken as follows: (1) Live-trapping in the areas for transplanting elsewhere; (2) research specimens for National Park Service and cooperating scientists; and (3) direct reduction by National Park Service personnel. It is recognized that it may be necessary, on occasion, to carry on each phase of this program simultaneously. The National Park Service will adjust the use of these control methods (except natural predation) to meet varying weather and other relevant conditions, giving highest priority to the opportunities for public hunting outside the areas and live-trapping in the areas for transplanting elsewhere. (See also Plant and Animal Resources, p. 17, Resource Management Policy section; Public Hunting, this page, and Cooperation with States, p. 26, this section; Regulation of Excess Wildlife Population, p. 56, Wilderness Use and Management Policy section; and Appendix E.)

Cooperation with States
The Service will consult with the appropriate State fish and game departments in carrying out programs of control of over-abundant or otherwise harmful populations of fish and wildlife or research programs involving the taking of such fish and resident wildlife, including the disposition of carcasses therefrom. In any case where there is a disagreement, such disagreement shall be referred to the Secretary of the Interior, who shall provide for a thorough discussion of the problems with representatives of the State fish and game department and the National Park Service for the purpose of resolving the disagreement.

DISCUSSION

National parks and monuments (the natural areas of the Natural Park System) are established to preserve for all times scenic beauty, wilderness, native wildlife, indigenous plantlife, and areas of scientific significance or antiquity. Sound park management in these instances requires that the national parks and monuments be preserved in their natural condition. In the long range, this management objective is best achieved when exploitative and private uses are eliminated by acquisition of the property by the Federal Government.

Historically, the first national parks and monuments were established from the public domain prior to the introduction of any private rights therein. Later, national parks and monuments were established when lands therein were acquired by the States or through private philanthropy and donated to the Federal Government. Only recently have substantial sums of Federal funds been authorized for the acquisition of large natural areas as national parks and monuments. In these latter instances, many private uses are sometimes included within these natural areas.

ADMINISTRATIVE POLICIES

Land Acquisition and Restoration
As funds permit, the Service will acquire such property interest in non-Federal lands within the authorized boundaries of natural areas as may be needed to provide for effective management, visitor use, and the achievement of the primary purpose for which the area was established. All physical improvements or land uses on acquired property that are inimical to or inconsistent with the purpose, management, or visitor use of an area should be removed or discontinued. (See also Inholdings, p. 57, Wilderness Use and Management Policy section.)

To achieve the foregoing management objective with a minimum of disruption and inconvenience to the private property owners involved, the following procedures have been developed for carrying out the land and water rights acquisition policies for natural areas of the National Park System:

I. In newly authorized areas (usually those national parks and monuments authorized since 1961) where Federal lands are limited and private lands are extensive, the priority of acquisition is as follows:

(a) Land needed for preservation or protection of park values.

(b) Land needed for development of facilities.

(c) Unimproved land needed to prevent threatened development or use which would be incompatible with existing or potential park purposes.

Within each of the foregoing priorities, the Service will give primary consideration to the acquisition of land which the owner needs to dispose of for hardship reasons; and land which the owner, voluntarily, has placed, or intends to place, on the market for sale.

The land acquisition program is executed in accordance with the specific legislative policies, if any, set forth in the act authorizing the area. In the absence of specific legislation, the program is executed as follows:

1. Purchases are negotiated on the basis of competent appraisals of fair market value.

2. Less than fee interests (see No. 3 as examples) may be acquired when such interests will meet the needs of the Service and are justified on cost.

3. Reserved use and occupancy by the owner for life or for a term of years is allowed if purchase on this basis will meet the needs of the Service and is justified on cost.

4. Eminent domain proceedings are utilized only as a last resort when all reasonable efforts of negotiations have failed.

II. In the older national parks and monuments (generally those established prior to 1961) where most of the lands included within the areas are now in Federal ownership—usually 90 percent or more of the total acreage in the area—a more literal acquisition procedure has been established. In these national parks and monuments, the relatively small amount of land in private ownership, for the most part, is devoted to historic uses related to the early settlement of our Nation, such as modest homesites, ranches, limited eating establishments, or lodges. Except as a specific property may be needed in rare instances for development of public-use facilities, or where the existing use is adverse to the proposed plans for the management of the area, these historical uses may reasonably be allowed to continue until (a) such time as there is a desire on the part of the owners to dispose of their holdings; or (b) until it is proposed that the present compatible uses of these lands be altered or changed so significantly as to make them incompatible with the primary purpose for which the area was established. Accordingly, in the acquisition of the properties devoted to such compatible uses, the National Park Service shall observe the following procedure:

1. The Service will not seek to acquire private lands without the consent of the owner, so long as the lands continue to be devoted to present compatible uses now being made of them—such as for modest homesites, ranches, limited eating establishments, or lodges. This also applies to any future owners of the property so long as the properties continue to be used for these same compatible purposes.

2. The Service will welcome offers from the owners to sell private properties to the United States, and it is hoped that the owners will give the Service first opportunity to purchase them. If an owner wishes to sell his property outright, the Service would be glad to negotiate on that basis; or, in the alternative, on such other basis as may be authorized in the applicable legislation relating to the retention of use and occupancy rights by the owner for a given number of years or for the remainder of his life and that of his spouse. The latter situation will enable people who desire to obtain money in hand today for their property, with occupancy rights for a term of years or for their lifetimes, to work out a negotiated contract on this basis.

3. If existing incompatible uses persist or if present compatible uses of properties are to be changed and the properties are to be devoted to new and different uses not compatible with the primary purpose for which the area was established, the Service will attempt to negotiate with the owner for the acquisition of the property in order to eliminate a use or avoid development of a use adverse to the management of the area. In the event all reasonable efforts at negotiation fail and the owner persists in his efforts to devote the property to a use deemed by the Service to be adverse to the primary purpose for which the area was established, the United States will institute eminent domain proceedings to acquire the property and eliminate such use or prevent such development.

4. All negotiations by the Federal Government shall be on the basis of competent appraisals of fair market value.

Water Rights
All rights to the use of water diverted to or used on Federal lands in natural areas by the United States, its concessioners, lessees, or permittees shall be perfected in the name of the United States.

Valid existing water rights of concessioners and land-use permittees on Federal lands will be acquired by the United States as funds, legal authority, and overall management objectives permit.

Water rights owned by private landowners within natural areas will be acquired in connection with the acquisition of such private lands insofar as practicable.

Owners of land or interests in land within or adjacent to natural areas may be granted, by special-use permit, the privilege of using water owned by the Service when it is administratively determined that the use of such water facilitates the management program of the Service. An appropriate charge shall be made for the use of such water.

Owners of land or interests in land adjacent to natural areas may be granted, by special-use permit, the privilege of developing sources of water on Federal lands when it is administratively determined that the use of such water facilitates the management program of the Service. An appropriate charge shall be made for the use of such water.

Development costs, including costs of access between the private lands to be served and the source of the water, shall be borne by the permittee. In all of these cases, the Service shall retain the right to use water from such a development. If, and when, such retained rights are exercised by the Service, it shall share in the costs of the water rights development on an equitable basis.

Under this policy, as a matter of comity, the Service will notify the States of the amount of water diverted and consumed, and the priority asserted. The notice shall also include a disclaimer as to State jurisdiction.

DISCUSSION

It has long been the practice of the National Park Service to prepare and maintain a Master Plan to guide the use, development, interpretation, and preservation of each particular park. Graphics and narrative specify the objectives of management. In a sense, these Master Plans are zoning plans. They not only define the areas for developments, they also define the areas in which no developments are to be permitted.

Parks do not exist in a vacuum. It is important in planning for a park that the team take into account the total environment in which the park exists. Of particular significance are the plans for and the availability of other park and recreation facilities within the region at the Federal, State, and local levels, as well as those of the private sector for the accommodation of visitors, access to the national parks, the roads within them, wildlife habitat, etc. Accordingly, the Master Plan Team first analyzes the entire region in which the park is located and the many factors that influence its management.

Moreover, where national parks and national forests adjoin, such as Mount Rainier, Yellowstone, and Grand Teton National Parks, the National Park Service and the U.S. Forest Service formalized, in 1963, a joint effort to analyze the resources and visitor needs and develop cooperative plans for the accommodation of these requirements which will best insure the achievement of both of our missions. This program formalizes and broadens the informal efforts made for many years by many park superintendents and forest supervisors to coordinate management programs, including visitor facilities and services. Such cooperative programs are authorized by section 2 of the act of August 25, 1916, establishing the National Park Service.

ADMINISTRATIVE POLICIES

Master Plan
A Master Plan will be prepared for each area to cover specifically all Resource Management, Resource Use, and Physical Development programs. An approved Master Plan is required before any development program may be executed in an area. (See also Research, p. 44, Resource Use Policy section, and p. 56, Wilderness Use and Management Policy section.)

Master Plan Teams
All Master Plan Teams should be composed of members having different professional backgrounds, such as ecology, landscape architecture, architecture, natural history, park planning, resource management, engineering, archeology, and history. Where available funds and program needs permit, the study teams for the national parks should include outstanding conservationists, scientists, and others who possess special knowledge of individual parks. Also, the teams should consult with authorized concessioners during the Master Plan study.

Architectural Theme
(See p. 60, Physical Developments Policy section.)

Land Classification
A sound system of evaluation and classification for lands and waters in a park or monument is a prerequisite for master planning. This is necessary to provide proper recognition and protection of park resources and to plan for visitor enjoyment of the values of the area. The system serves, also, as a basis for recommending lands for "wilderness" classification in accordance with the Wilderness Act and provides a basis for making many other Master Plan judgments.

The land classification system to be used is similar to that proposed by the Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission and prescribed for application to Federal lands by the Bureau of Outdoor Recreation. Under this system, lands may be segregated into any one of six classes:

Class I—high density recreation areas; Class II—general outdoor recreation areas; Class III—natural environment areas; Class IV—outstanding natural areas; Class V—primitive areas, including, but not limited to, those recommended for designation under the Wilderness Act; and Class VI—historic and cultural areas. Consistent with the congressionally stated purpose of national parks, a park contains lands falling into three or more of these classes.

Classes I and II identify the lands reserved for visitor accommodations (both existing and proposed), for administrative facilities, formal campgrounds, two-way roads, etc., of varying intensities. Class I and II lands occupy relatively little space in any of the national parks.

Class III identifies the "natural environment areas." As the name of the category implies, these are "natural environment" lands. These lands are important to the proper preservation, interpretation, and management of the irreplaceable resources of the National Park System. These irreplaceable resources are identified in Class IV, V, and VI categories of lands. It is the existence of unique features (Class IV), or primitive lands, including wilderness (Class V), or historical or cultural lands (Class VI) in combination with a suitable environment (Class III) and with sufficient lands "for the accommodation of visitors" (Classes I and II) that distinguishes natural and historical areas of the National Park System from other public lands providing outdoor recreation.

In the natural areas (national parks and national monuments of scientific significance), Class III lands often provide the "transition" or "setting" or "environment" or "buffer" between intensively developed portions of the park or monument (Classes I and II) and (a) the primitive or wilderness (Class V) areas; and (b) the unique natural features (Class IV) or areas of historic or cultural significance (Class VI) when these two categories exist outside the Class V lands.

In the historical areas (the administrative policies for which are included in a separate booklet), the "environmental" lands (Class III) serve a similar role in providing the "setting" or "atmosphere" essential to preserving and presenting the national significance of historic properties included in the National Park System.

Often, Classes III and V lands both represent significant natural values. Generally, these values are different in type, quality, or degree. Accordingly, lands having natural values that do not meet Service criteria for primitive or Wilderness designation may be classified as Class III even when they do not involve the environment of either Class IV, Class V, or Class VI-lands. In natural areas, "natural environment" lands are sometimes referred to additionally as "wilderness threshold" when they abut or surround wilderness.

The "wilderness threshold" lands afford the newcomer an opportunity to explore the mood and the temper of the wild country before venturing into the Wilderness beyond. Here, in the wilderness threshold, is an unequalled opportunity for interpretation of the meaning of wilderness.

Class III lands also serve important research needs of the Service, as well as of many independent researchers and institutions of higher learning.

The only facilities planned in these "natural environment" lands are the minimum required for public enjoyment, health, safety, preservation, and protection of the features, such as one-way motor nature trails, small visitor overlooks, informal picnic sites, short nature walks, and wilderness-type uses. Such limited facilities must be in complete harmony with the natural environment.

Class IV lands are those which contain unique natural features. These lands usually represent the most fragile and most precious values of a natural area. Class IV identifies the terrain and objects of scenic splendor, natural wonder, or scientific importance that are the heart of the park. These are the lands which must have the highest order of protection so that they will remain "unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations." Nothing in the way of human use should be permitted on Class IV lands that intrudes upon or may in any way damage or alter the scene. The sites and features are irreplaceable. They may range in size from large areas within the Grand Canyon to small sites such as Old Faithful Geyser or a sequoia grove.

Class V are the primitive lands that have remained pristine and undisturbed as a part of our natural inheritance. They include in some instances, moreover, lands which, through National Park Service management, have been restored by the healing processes of nature to a primeval state. There are no mining, domestic stock grazing, water impoundments, or other intrusions of man to mar their character and detract from the solitude and quiet of the natural scene. The protection and maintenance of natural conditions and a wilderness atmosphere are paramount management objectives. The only facilities allowed in these lands are of the type mentioned in the Wilderness Use and Management Policy section, p. 54.

Class VI are the lands, including historic structures, of historical or cultural significance, such as the agricultural community of Cades Cove in Great Smoky Mountains National Park.

Wilderness Hearings
One of the finest new public land planning procedures introduced by the Wilderness Act is the opportunity for the public to express its views on the preliminary wilderness proposals prior to these proposals' being firmly established for recommendations to the Congress. These hearings are held in the State in which the wilderness is proposed.

Notice of such public hearings is published in the "Federal Register" and newspapers having general circulation in the area of the park at least 60 days prior to the hearings. During this 60-day period, the Master Plan documents are available for public review at the park, in the appropriate Regional Office, and in the Washington Office. Moreover, public information packets explaining national park wilderness proposals are available at the same time for distribution to all those requesting them.

The Wilderness Act requires that the public hearing be held on the wilderness proposals only. However, it is the practice of the National Park Service to make available the general development plan for the park or monument at the time the preliminary wilderness proposal is released. The Service welcomes public comments and views on these plans. Moreover, once the Congress has defined the wilderness areas within the national parks and monuments, it shall be the practice of the National Park Service to give public notice of 60 days on any proposal to change the classification of any Class I, Class II, or Class III lands within the park or monument. In this way, the Service shall afford the public a continuing opportunity to participate in the planning and management of its national parks and monuments.

DISCUSSION

The Secretary's Advisory Board on National Parks, Historic Sites, Buildings, and Monuments, at its 55th meeting in Washington, D.C., October 3-6, 1966, considered the matter of research stations in the national parks.

In its memorandum to the Secretary of October 6, 1966, recommending the establishment of research stations at appropriate locations in the National Park System, the Board stated, in part, as follows:

The Board is familiar with the Jackson Hole Biological Station in Grand Teton National Park, the Archeological Research Station in Mesa Verde, operated by the University of Colorado, the Volcano Observatory in Hawaii National Park, operated by U.S. Geological Survey, and with proposals to establish similar research stations in other parks. The Board favors the establishment of such stations, entirely or partially financed and operated by others. Such stations, it believes, can do much to focus research effort in the national parks in support of park management, and to encourage the use of park resources for basic research by others. At the same time, the Board recognizes that such operations and developments must remain within the purview and control of the National Park Service and the Department.

The Board's memorandum was approved on October 26, 1966.

Research Program
The Service encourages and will participate in appropriate ways in the establishment in natural areas of research stations which focus significantly upon studies of park resources. The research programs of such stations should include research within the scope of the management-oriented park natural sciences research plan. The research programs may also embrace basic research independently conceived.

The foregoing does not necessarily exclude research reaching beyond the boundaries of the park. However, research stations sponsoring research programs which are primarily nonpark oriented may not be located in natural areas. (See also Wildlife Management Program, p. 25, Fish and Wildlife Management Policy section; and Research, p. 44, Resource Use Policy section, and p. 56, Wilderness Use and Management Policy section.)

Research Station Criteria
Proposals for a research station within a park should demonstrate that:

A. The sponsoring institution is one of stability and competence.

B. The research plan and the development plan are adequate and consistent with the objectives and policies of the park concerned.

C. The financial plan is sound and promises fruition of the enterprise.

D. The nature of the proposed research program in some cases will indicate a location for the station within the boundaries of a park. Where this is not the case, the research station may well be located outside the park boundary; this would be consistent with the Service's present practice of encouraging the location of service and accommodation facilities outside the park.

E. Where the research station is to be located within the park:

1. It should be of a nature and in a location that do not impinge upon the scene, the ecology of the area, or come into conflict with visitor use.

2. The research station development should be consistent with the Master Plan, taking into account location, development plan, design, and the like.

3. An understanding should be reached as to the degree to which the Service will provide utilities, road access, trails, and provide for maintenance of the same. Service participation will quite likely vary from project to project, depending in part upon the benefits expected to accrue to park management from the station.

4. Modest research stations are favored, and limitations should be agreed upon as to the eventual size of the development, the scope of the research contemplated, and upon the number of personnel to be served by the station.

Research Station Administration
In the administration of the station, appropriate representation on the governing board should give the Service a voice on matters of research policy, research orientation, and in the operating policy of the station.

Such stations should not be closed institutions restricting participation to associates of the sponsoring institution. Rather, acceptance of applicants for use of the facilities should generally be based upon conformance of the proposed research to the research orientation and program agreed upon for the station.

Whenever possible, the Service will provide as liaison with each research station an on-site research biologist to facilitate the operation of the research station in the area. (See also Research Program and Research Station Criteria, p. 37, this section; and Research, p. 56, Wilderness Use and Management Policy section.)

DISCUSSION

Commencing with the establishment of the first national park, camping has been an accepted and desirable use of the natural areas of the National Park System. With blanket or bedroll, an individual or a family or a group sought, through camping, the refreshing experience of a trip in the out-of-doors. No modern comfort facilities were available and ofttimes no formal campgrounds were needed or provided.

With increasing leisure time, growing affluence, easier accessibility, and greater mobility, camping has become more popular in recent years. The increasing numbers of campers have required that formal campgrounds be established and modern sanitation facilities be provided. Moreover, the rapid rise in popularity of recreation vehicles—many equipped as a self-contained base of living—has put new pressures on campground development and management. For example, demand is great now for individual hookups for power, water, and waste disposal. Indeed, these innovations are not only changing the camping patterns of the past, but also are challenging the capability of many of our national parks to accommodate their insatiable demands for space and capital investment in much the same way as do permanent overnight facilities. Moreover, the increasing size of recreational vehicles exerts added pressure to widen, straighten, and upgrade park roads to accommodate these vehicles safely.

The natural areas offer unique scenic grandeur and scientific and other natural values for the inspiration and re-creation of man. Accordingly, the national parks and monuments are destinations for tens of thousands of citizens seeking to benefit from and enjoy the values of a park experience. Some wish to backpack and camp in the high country; others seek accommodation in permanent facilities, i.e., hotels, lodges, and cabins; while ever-increasing numbers seek accommodations in formal campgrounds equipped for the modern conveniences of an urban society. Formal camping accommodations, including facilities for recreation vehicles, in these circumstances, are a means to an end in much the same manner as permanent lodges, hotels, or cabins.

The mandate "* * * promote and regulate the use of the * * * national parks [and] monuments * * * and to provide for the enjoyment of the same * * *" is compelling. The mandate to "* * * leave them [national parks and national monuments] unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations" is inescapable.

The solution to the growing problems related to camping and campground development in the natural areas does not entail the prohibition of all but primitive or backpack camping. It is essential, however, to plan and manage camping and campground development in restrained and creative ways if camping is to continue to provide a quality park experience and if the integrity of the natural areas is to be preserved.

ADMINISTRATIVE POLICIES

Campground Location
Camping accommodations are necessary and desirable to permit public use and enjoyment of the natural areas of the National Park System. Camping accommodations should provide for a range of camping experiences from the primitive campground offering minimum facilities to the campground offering full utility hookups for recreation vehicles. Where such camping accommodations, facilities, and services to meet this need exist in adequate supply outside of a natural area, or where it is feasible for them to be developed by other Government agencies or private enterprise for this purpose outside a natural area, such accommodations, facilities, and services should not be provided within the area. (See also Campground Operation, p. 41, this section.)

Among other considerations, sites of campgrounds for recreation vehicles or group camping should be selected with due regard for the capability of the park road access thereto to accommodate the camping or recreation vehicle safely within prescribed park road standards. It is not an acceptable practice to locate such campgrounds within the interior of an area if to do so requires that the approved standard of the road be upgraded in order to accommodate the camping vehicle.

Campground Size, Design, and Facilities
Such camping accommodations, facilities, and services as may be provided within a natural area for public use and enjoyment of the area will be located and designed with the greatest care for the preservation of park values. Except as may be approved by the Director in specific locations, campgrounds should be limited to 250 sites and designed so as to permit areas of separation between campsites which can be managed to retain as much as possible of the natural environment. Play areas for tots and pre-school-age children may be provided. Campground design should make provision for the use of charcoal or other fuels or central cook sheds on those occasions when, and at locations where, it may be necessary by reason of fire danger, air pollution, or other hazards to limit the use of wood for fires at individual campsites. Where feasible, tent camping should be provided in separate campgrounds or in separately designated areas within campgrounds.

Provision should be made for accommodating organized camping groups, particularly touring youth groups, either in separate campgrounds or in camping sites adjacent to, but separated from individual sites within formal campgrounds. However, such accommodations should not be assigned to the continuous and exclusive use of any one particular special-interest group. Permanent facilities for group camping should be limited to those necessary for group cooking, sanitation, and interpretive programs.

Each campground should have such interpretive facilities as may be required for the camper's appreciation and understanding of park values.

Campground Operation
Each campground shall be operated and maintained within its design capacity. Individual sites or entire loops should be rested and, if necessary, renovated on a rotational basis. Innovative and creative use of modern techniques is encouraged, including periodic restoration of native plant material, reseeding with native grasses, use of commercial fertilizers, portable irrigation systems, and surfacing of heavy-use areas with inert materials.

No overflow or excess use of a campground or an individual campsite will be permitted. To accommodate visitation, advance reservation of camp sites and limitations on length of continuous use by one camping party may be imposed. Generally, such limitations on continuous use should be related to the time needed to see the park.

Backpack camping by individuals, families, and groups is encouraged. Fire permits and registration, consistent with minimum standards of safety, may be required. Where intensity of use threatens park values, designated campsites, trailside shelters, and minimum sanitary facilities will be provided. (See also Visitor Use Structures and Facilities, p. 57, Wilderness Use and Management Policy section.) Moreover, limitations on size of groups and frequency of trips to specific locations may be imposed. Campers, also, may be required to pack out noncombustible trash. (See also Trail Use, p. 66, Road and Trail Policy section.)

Sites or facilities within campgrounds may not be utilized as permanent or seasonal residences by persons not engaged in on-site public services or protection of property within the area. (See also Residential Facilities, p. 61, Physical Developments Policy section.)

Chalets
High-country chalets or camps—such as those in Glacier, Yosemite, and Great Smoky Mountains National Parks, which offer minimum shelter, family-style meals, and primitive sanitary facilities—are encouraged.