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Presenting Nature
MENU
Design Ethic Origins
(1916-1927)
Design Policy & Process
(1916-1927)
Western Field Office
(1927-1932)
Decade of Expansion
(1933-1942)
State Parks
(1933-1942)
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Presenting Nature:
The Historic Landscape Design of the National Park Service, 1916-1942 |
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VII. A NEW DEAL FOR STATE PARKS, 1933 — 1942 (continued)
STATE PARK EMERGENCY CONSERVATION WORK (continued)
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES
Maier's office aggressively sought ways to convey the park service's principles and train his inspectors and camp landscape architects, architects, and engineers. While experienced in the principles of design and construction for park structures, he also understood and instructed his inspectors in the principles of park road design, guardrail construction, and campground and picnic area development.
Sometime in 1934, Maier's office produced a photographic handbook for district inspectors. The handbook presented the practices and principles of good park design in the form of twenty-two linen-backed photographs. Each photograph was numbered and accompanied by a simple principle or instruction placed on the back. Illustrations of Maier's earlier work in Yosemite, Yellowstone, and Grand Canyon; the early ECW work in Arkansas and Oklahoma; and national park work being done in the campgrounds and along park roads at Rocky Mountain National Park were included. This handbook represented Maier's ideas about the basic principles of park design. They reflected his own growth from an architect of museums to a park designer, planner, and administrator. By 1934, Maier had assimilated ideas drawn from the professional fields of architecture and landscape architecture, as well as the principles and practices formulated by the Landscape Division for the design of park roads, trails, and campgrounds.
The inspector's handbook illustrated museum buildings, nature shrines, amphitheaters, campgrounds, picnic sites and shelters, road banks, guardrails, dams, footbridges, culverts, and water crossings. It provided basic instructions for building park structures, constructing roads, and designing campgrounds and picnic areas.
Maier stressed basic principles of design, which he then translated into specific practices that enabled structures to blend inconspicuously into their natural surroundings. Similar to those he summarized in his address to state park officials in 1935, these principles were the use of indigenous materials, use of free-hand lines, horizontal emphasis, commonality of scale among all members and the whole structure, elimination of right angles and rigid lines, and architectural blending. Maier used his work at Yellowstone, Yosemite, and Grand Canyon national parks from 1924 to 1930 to illustrate principles and practices of good architectural design.
Using his museum at Norris Geyser Basin with its central open foyer, Maier urged designers to use freehand lines and allow horizontal lines to predominate. He explained how park structures could be made less conspicuous and more readily screened when their silhouette was low and horizontal lines predominated. He encouraged the use of rock along the base of the building and showed how the lines between earth and building could be erased by splaying the lower courses and by placing plant material along the line of demarcation. [23]
Grand Canyon's Yavapai Point Observation Building illustrated the elimination of right angles and rigid lines. Maier drew attention to the absence of sharp right angles and straight lines in the building's overall shape, masonry walls, and details such as windows and doors. He pointed out the treatment of stone lintels supported by rock corbels so that openings closely resembled the irregular recesses in the nearby rock formations. He said that sharp right angles and rigid straight lines were to be avoided in buildings in wilderness areas and that irregularity lent a feeling of primitiveness to the workmanship, as well as one of age to the structure. [24]
The Yavapai Point building presented a vastly different design problem from that of the Yellowstone museums. Here not only did Maier explore the use of rough local rock as a material of inherent beauty and interest, but he achieved variations of form, texture, and line that assimilated the character of the surrounding canyon. While the use of flat roofs was generally discouraged in wilderness areas, Maier felt justified in incorporating one in the design of the Grand Canyon museum. He said,
In this particular case, on the rim of the Grand Canyon, the building is silhouetted against the sky and a gable roof would have been too conspicuous. Also, the flat roof here is in keeping with the extreme flatness of the Canyon rim area and, of course, there is the historical precedent in Pueblo architecture. [25]
Maier coupled principles with practices and offered detailed advice. Stone pylons and walls were to be splayed near the base. Exposed log members were to be selected for their knotty character, and he pointed out the structural use of stone in corbels to support log trusses. Chimneys were to be stepped back as close to the ridge as possible to become "a more intimate part of the building." Although many of his terraces at Yellowstone were made of cement, he preferred flagstone as flooring for terraces, lookouts, and shelters. He drew attention to how planks and logs were cut and joined to form doors and stressed that stones forming walls should be in a variety of sizes to lend a structure "interest." Roofs were to be shingled with shakes one inch thick. Each course was to have a wavy appearance, adding to the freehand character. Every fifth course was to be doubled to add to the appearance of a roof's weight. In keeping with pioneer prototypes, windows were to be relatively small in size and contain small panes of glass. Maier felt glass was out of harmony with rough rockwork. Because glass was "a scarce article" to the pioneer builder, he further believed large single-paned windows were out of character in a natural park. Although he claimed no precedent for clipped or jerkinhead gables in pioneer America, he suggested their use because they eliminated "what might otherwise be too prominent a point."
He suggested details of construction and design. For example, illustrating the Madison Junction ranger station at Yellowstone, he pointed out how a cap-log placed along the top of a rock base could join together the rock and shakes. He drew attention to the informality of the rock steps leading to the ranger station. Maier's comments throughout the handbook pointed out problems in proportions and stonemasonry. Interior logwork, including the rafters and purlins of the exposed roof and the posts and lintels framing doorways and windows, were to be in scale and have an irregular knotty appearance. The scale of doorways, too, was important, with the width exaggerated in proportion to the height. The shingle courses for roofing or walls were to be laid in wavy freehand, rather than rigid, lines. Decorative details included a cutout of an evergreen tree backed by green cathedral glass.
Maier was a critic of his earliest work. Illustrating the fireproof features of Yosemite Museum, he said that from a design standpoint it would have been better to carry some of the lower-story rockwork up through the second story to avoid the appearance of two horizontal halves, one stone and the other frame. He suggested that the arch rocks of the entrance arch should have been "a trifle larger. . . in better scale with the adjoining rocks." Similarly, he was critical of the Glacier Point Lookout of the mid-1920s, saying the walls should have been twice as thick and the stones of the lower courses should have been larger "to give the appearance of growing out of solid rock." He advised that the roof be given a heavier appearance by using thicker shakes or doubling the courses.
He was also critical of the monotony of rock sizes in the walls of the Yavapai Point building at Grand Canyon. In his museum at Bear Mountain in the Palisades Interstate Park, he found the shingle roof too light and rigid in appearance for the heavy stonemasonry walls and the change in the size of stones in successive courses to be too sudden.
Coloration was important. In selecting colors for paint or stain, he said, "Warm browns have been found to be the best medium for lessening the importance of a structure. Green roofs are difficult to handle. It is most difficult to harmonize the color with nearby tree foliage and because green pigments usually fade to unpleasant hues. . . . It is frequently desirable to paint window muntins a lighter color than the walls in order to take advantage of their architectural value." [26]
Maier's lesser works such as Yellowstone's nature shrines and amphitheaters would prove particularly influential in state and national park ECW. Nature shrines at Obsidian Cliff, Tuff Cliff, and Firehole in Yellowstone and amphitheaters from the Yellowstone museums and Boulder Mountain Park were illustrated in the handbook. Amphitheaters were to be located in natural bowls. They were to be screened from view by encircling trees that also served to shade the audience. Usually the stage was to be oriented to the east so that the audience would not face the afternoon sun. Masonry seats were preferred because they could be modeled into curvilinear benches that fit inconspicuously into the bowl-shaped theater. Log seats resulted in a more definite geometric pattern and were considered more conspicuous.
Maier emphasized the importance of vegetation and edging stones in woodland theaters. At Old Faithful in Yellowstone, rows of Engelmann spruce were planted before and behind the log parapet behind the stage. An edging of irregularly sized and shaped boulders outlined planting beds that separated the stage from the aisles and seating. Natural trees were left between seats. A campfire circle of stone was constructed in front of the stage. Trees were planted around the outskirts of seats to screen the amphitheater from outside activities.
The presentation of lantern slides had become a popular evening program in national parks by the 1930s. For the screen of an outdoor amphitheater, Maier suggested using canvas screen that could be removed in winter and mounted in a log frame built into a stockaded parapet of vertical logs that served as a back wall of the stage. A lantern house was located on center axis to the stage.
What Maier could not draw from his own experience as a park designer, he drew from the principles and practices of the Landscape Division and the first experiments in ECW work in state and local parks under his jurisdiction. Building roads was the first stage of development in any park and, as a result, was a particularly important type of conservation work. Maier looked to the work being done on the Trail Ridge Road in Rocky Mountain National Park not far from his first office in Denver. This road was one of the first to be built entirely according to the improved specifications for excavation, masonry, and landscape protection that Vint's office had introduced in 1929. Illustrating various views of the newly constructed road, the handbook gave instructions for building guardrails, shaping road banks, naturalizing the roadside, and developing scenic turnouts. Following the standards worked out by the Landscape Division, Maier explained the techniques for sloping road banks,
The primary purpose of bank sloping is to return the bank to as near its original condition as possible, thereby removing the scars which have resulted from road building. . . . The degree of slope will depend on the natural terrain and on the character of the soil. Where possible the slope should be low enough to hold grass and to prevent erosion. As a rule a three-to-one slope is desirable but a four-to one slope is preferable. . . . The cross-section of a sloped bank should be an O.G. curve with the lower part forming the gutter. It is a common fault that this lower part is omitted so that the bank enters the gutter at a sharp angle. . . . It is most essential that the top of the bank be well-rounded into the natural grade so that root cornices will not develop later. One of the common mistakes is to direct the workmen to work to a series of stakes beyond which they do not go thereby leaving a line of demarcation along the top of the bank. [27]
Where a steep rock bank was exposed, Maier suggested leaving it in place and rounding it off at various points to give it the appearance of a natural rock outcrop. He pointed out the desirability of adjusting the degree of the slope to the natural terrain and avoiding a constant degree of slope. A common question facing road builders was whether or not to preserve the trees on road banks. Where trees were plentiful, Maier advised, "their retention, unless in the matter of outstanding specimens, should be secondary. It is usually better to develop the bank to it's [sic] proper slope and introduce seedlings than to retain the trees at the expense of the proper ground form." [28]
On naturalizing the roadside after construction, Maier recommended that slopes be allowed to recover naturally and that sodding be attempted only where cuts were too steep "to give promise of natural restoration." Rocks could be embedded in the slopes for naturalistic effect. Maier wrote,
Where vegetation is fairly profuse and the bank has been properly sloped, the natural vegetation will frequently restore itself. . . . however, it is sometimes necessary to seed the bank. In such cases only grasses that are natural to the region would be used. [29]
Combining principle and practice, the handbook showed how a steep road-cut could be resodded by introducing board strips and wooden pegs to hold the sod in place. Existing rocks were to be left in place and others introduced to further hold the sod and break up the monotony of the slope. Camp foremen and technicians were reminded that slopes were to be watered for a considerable period after planting.
Illustrating the newly constructed guardrail along the Trail Ridge Road, Maier translated the Landscape Division's standards into simple instructions. He said that rock guardrails were preferred in wilderness areas because they were permanent and blended readily into the landscape. He drew attention to the proportions of the walls and to the spacing of the crenulating piers that occurred at intervals and broke the monotony of a continuous horizontal line. His instructions recommended dimensions for walls and piers and the irregular placement of stones outside of courses to give the effect of a continuous and naturalistic parapet. Maier warned against practices such as troweling off the top of the walls with mortar or placing wafer-shaped rocks along the top course.
Maier offered two designs for culverts, one of stonemasonry, the other of dry rock. These were built for Wintersmith Park in Oklahoma and followed the standard designs and masonry specifications worked out in the late 1920s by Vint's office. [30]
To illustrate campground construction, Maier drew on Meinecke's theory and again looked to projects under way in nearby Rocky Mountain National Park. He recommended Meinecke's idea for using logs and boulders as barriers to control traffic and protect valuable vegetation. Using logs was much cheaper than hauling in boulders and embedding them in the earth but "much less permanent." Logs were to be considerable in size. Cedar was the best material, being more durable than pine, and fir the least desirable. Maier encouraged naturalism, saying, "A plain natural log placed in such a way that it gives the appearance of having fallen where it lies, is without doubt the most preferable." [31]
Where trees were most endangered—at sharp corners, on the outside of the road curve, and at the entrance to parking spurs—boulders offered the best protection. Rockwork was to appear naturalistic. Maier wrote,
When boulders are used they should be large and should be partially embedded in soil so that they will appear natural and solid. Small rocks should not be used because they are easily overlooked and can be moved. The visibility of the boulders is important. Use dark ones against light colored soil and light boulders against dark soil or a green background. Do not outline roads or spurs with regular rows of rocks—these look unnatural. Boulders need not be placed closer than to prevent the driver from attempting to go between them. Parking spurs should be located in the shade. . . . Spacing of boulders should neither be regular nor in a straight line. Make the arrangement appear as natural as possible. [32]
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| Naturalistic stonemasonry fireplaces were built at Bastrop State Park in Texas. The CCC in state and national parks in the 1930s fashioned utilitarian objects such as fireplaces and water fountains into hand-crafted, naturalistic rockwork that blended with the natural setting. (National Archives, Record Group 79) |
In Maier's region, where rock outcrops and boulder strewn hillsides abounded, the naturalistic development of picnic areas offered creative possibilities. In the Southwest, the early picnic areas were large, with a small number of sites developed as individual and private units. Built into the hillside on a terrace of natural rock and flagstones or concealed behind a rock outcropping or thicket of trees, each picnic site was designed as a naturalistic grotto. Some were designed to accommodate a single family, while others were designed for larger groups. Maier illustrated one at Oklahoma's Turner Falls Park where stonemasonry was the principal method of construction for fireplaces, benches, and tables. Maier found fireplaces were frequently unsightly and recommended naturalistic designs that blended with the terrain, using rock where it was available. Maier called for standard proportions in the measurements for seats (eighteen inches wide) and tables (thirty-one inches high) but encouraged variations in the size of tabletops to create banquet tables as well as family- and even children-sized versions. He wrote,
Naturalistic picnic units built up of rocks blend into the surroundings more readily than do those constructed of logs or sized lumber. . . . It is more difficult, however, to satisfactorily execute tables and benches of rock since, due to their freehand lines, workmen find it difficult to execute them accurately from a blueprint. . . . There are several other factors which militate against the use of masonry tables and benches. They must be located in almost permanent shade since otherwise they become thoroughly heated and radiate heat for a long period. Furthermore, only the smoothest stone slabs serve satisfactorily as seat tops and table tops seldom if ever give a satisfactory appearance. [33]
The inspector's handbook illustrated a number of other naturalistic structures and landscape features. A footbridge made of oak logs, peeled to eliminate insect damage, blended with the surrounding forest. A low- water crossing built at Turner Falls Park in Oklahoma was both a dam and a bridge made naturalistic by the irregular placement of stones along the lower courses. Highly successful was a low naturalistic dam from Wintersmith Park in Oklahoma, which created a scenic lagoon for fishing and boating while giving the illusion of a natural waterfall by the stepped progression of lower courses laid to imitate natural ledges.
Also at Wintersmith, a stairway of naturalistic steps showed the direct influence of Olmsted's stairway at Franklin Park, illustrated in Hubbard's Introduction to the Study of Landscape Design. It was built into natural ledges and had heavy coping walls along both sides. Maier wrote,
Few landscape units are so difficult to execute satisfactorily as are naturalistic steps. . . . The primary object is to give the appearance of having utilized natural ledges. It is most important that the width of treads should not be kept constant but should vary. . . . The rocks forming the coping walls at either side of the steps should not be placed in a row but should vary in height, as shown. The stairway should be blended into the surroundings by occasionally carrying additional rocks some distance to either side into the adjoining vegetation. . . . No mortar should be evident—steps of this type are usually laid entirely by dry construction. . . . Width of treads and height of risers vary with the natural slope. Treads should be as wide as possible and risers should not exceed six inches. [34]
Attention to detail contributed greatly to Maier's success as an architect and was a key concept that he endeavored to pass on to his inspectors and to the ECW architects and landscape architects designing facilities in state parks. Maier's rigorous and methodical approach resulted in structures that, while derived from his designs or those of the Landscape Division, exhibited freedom of expression in their own right.
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| In Virginia and South Carolina, recreation demonstration areas took the form of waysides along main highways. RDAs were designed by the National Park Service and constructed by the Civilian Conservation Corps. The wayside on U.S. Highway One outside Mecklenburg, Virginia, included parkland on both sides of the highway and featured picnic areas, a playing field, a caretaker's residence, and several picnic shelters. While most RDAs were eventually turned over to state park systems, the waysides were transferred to state highway departments. (National Archives, Record Group 79) |
Although Maier's advice was focused on the climate, natural conditions, and topography of the southwestern states, his advice reflected the overall principles of park design adopted and advanced by the National Park Service. Above all, the inspector's handbook upheld the critical role of inspectors in state park Emergency Conservation Work and pointed out the specific principles and practices that the park service advocated and endeavored to communicate to the foremen and technicians of the CCC camps.
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Last Modified: Mon, Oct 31, 2002 10:00:00 pm PDT
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