Navajo Administrative History

1. "Statement for Management: Navajo National Monument," (Navajo National Monument: National Park Service, 1987), 3-4.

2. Scott E. Travis, "Draft Archeological Survey of Navajo National Monument," January 5, 1990. This document is not paginated.

3. Ibid; see also Donald L. Baars, The Colorado Plateau: A Geologic History (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1983), 175-221.

4. Ibid; Jeffrey S. Dean, "Ts'e Yaa Kin: Houses Beneath the Rock," Exploration: Annual Bulletin of the School of American Research, 2-13.

5. Jonathan Haas, "The Evolution of the Kayenta Anasazi," Exploration: Annual Bulletin of the School of American Research, 14-23.

6. Travis, "Draft Survey."

7. Ibid; Haas, "Evolution of the Kayenta Anasazi," 14-23;

8. Travis, "Draft Survey."

9. Ibid.

10. Dean, "House Beneath the Rock," 2-13; Jeffrey S. Dean, Chronological Analysis of Tsegi Phase Sites in Northeastern Arizona (Tucson: University of Tucson, 1969).

11. David Brugge, "Navajo Prehistory and History to 1850," in Alfonso Ortiz ed. Handbook of North American Indians: Volume 10 Southwest (Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1983), 489-501.

12. Ibid; Travis, "Draft Survey."

13. Elizabeth A. H. John, Storms Brewed in Other Men's Worlds: The Confrontation of Indians, Spanish, and French in the Southwest, 1540-1795 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1975), 58-154; Urs Bitterli, Cultures in Conflict: Encounters Between European and Non-European Cultures, 1492-1800, (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1989), 20-51; Alfred W. Crosby, Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900 A. D. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), .

14. Raymond Friday Locke, The Book of the Navajo (Los Angeles: Mankind Publishing Company, 1989) 4th edition, 153-54; John, Storms Brewed in Other Men's Worlds, 29-33, Jack D. Forbes, Apache, Navaho, and Spaniard (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press), 55-63.

15. Locke, Book of the Navajo, 157-58; John, Storms Brewed in Other Men's World, 47-50.

16. Ibid.

17. Forbes, Apache, Navaho, Spaniard, 110; Frank McNitt, Navajo Wars: Miltary Campaigns, Slave Raids and Reprisals (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1972) 12-13.

18. Edward H. Spicer, Cycles of Conquest: The Impact of Spain, Mexico, and the United States on the Indians of the Southwest 1533-1960 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1962), 1-15, 210-13; Brugge, "Navajo Prehistory and History to 1850," 489-501; Locke, Book of the Navajo, 186-87.

19. Joseph P. S&aucute;nchez, The Rio Abajo Frontier 1540-1692: A History of Early Colonial New Mexico (Albuquerque: The Albuquerque Museum, 1987) 1-142; Spicer, Cycles of Conquest, 21-23, 210-29; John, Storms Brewed in Other Men's Worlds, 233-35.

20. Locke, Book of the Navajo, 196, 202-204.

21. Ibid, 203-05; Robert A. Roessel, Jr., "Navajo History, 1850-1923," in Alfonso Ortiz ed. Handbook of North American Indians: Volume 10 Southwest (Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1983), 506-23.

22. Ibid; Locke, Book of the Navajo, 199-361. The Long Walk, as the policy of forced removal of Navajos to eastern New Mexico was known to the Dinè, was the pivotal moment in Navajo history. Many define time in terms the exile: events happened before or after the Bosque Redondo. As a result, Navajos ceased to be a military enemy of New Mexico Territory and instead began the long process of finding their place within a hostile socio-cultural structure. Aptly referred as the last Navajo war, the events that led up to the removal reflected the policies of the era: Indians had to become civilized or be threatened with extinction. While the reservations established for Indians were ostensibly designed to teach agriculture, practices there revealed a concerted effort to make Indians accept white ways of living. This removed any threat of Indian depredation of western communities, freed their land for use by settlers and others, and showed the power and force of the American military. Assimilation was not yet a goal of Indian policy. Keeping Indians away from settlers, ranchers, and communities was. See Lynn R. Bailey, The Long Walk: A History of the Navajo Wars, 1848-68 (Los Angeles: Westernlore Press, 1964); Frank McNitt, Navajo Wars: Military Campaigns, Slave Raids, and Reprisals (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1972); and Bill P. Acrey, Navajo History: The Land and the People (Shiprock, NM: Department of Curriculum Materials Development, 1988), for more.

23. Locke, Book of the Navajo, 376-90; Roessel, "Navajo History 1850-1923," 506-23.

24. Richard White, The Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change Among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984), 215.

25. White, Roots of Dependency, 215-49.

26. Ibid, 216-19; Lawrence Kelly, The Navajo Indians and Federal Indian Policy (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1968), 22-25.

27. Frank McNitt, The Indian Traders, (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1962), 68-86.

1. Hal Rothman, Preserving Different Pasts: The American National Monuments (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989), 9-15.

2. Curtis M. Hinsley, Jr., Savages and Scientists: The Smithsonian Institution and the Development of American Anthropology 1846-1910 (Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1981), 125-44; Robert Rydell, All the World's A Fair: Visions of Empire at American International Expositions, 1876-1916 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), 2-8.

3. Rothman, Preserving Different Pasts, 34-51.

4. Frank McNitt, Richard Wetherill: Anasazi (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1957), 79-83; Sallie Brewer Van Valkenburgh, "Some Sources of Information on Archeological Investigations and Stabilizations, Navajo National Monument," July 1963, Navajo National Monument files, Western Archeological and Conservation Center, Tucson, Arizona.

5. C. W. Ceram, Gods, Graves, and Scholars: The Story of Archeology, (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1979), 30-67; Gordon R. Willey and Jeremy A. Sabloff, A History of American Archeology (London: Thames and Hudson, 1974), 21-41.

6. McNitt, Anasazi, 153-63.

7. White, Roots of Dependency, 243-47; Clyde Kluckhorn and Dorothea Leighton, The Navaho (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1946), 79-80.

8. Neil M. Judd, Men Met Along the Trail: Adventures in Archaeology (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1968), 29-30.

9. Judd, Men Met Along the Trail, 30; Frances Gillmor and Louisa Wade Wetherill, Traders to the Navajo: The Story of the Wetherills of Kayenta (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1934), 47-54, 61-62.

10. Elizabeth Compton Hegemann, Navaho Trading Days (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1963), 227.

11. Gordon R. Willey, Portraits in American Archaeology: Remembrances of Some Distinguished Americanists (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1988), 3-24; Judd, Men Met Along the Trail, 3-4.

12. Judd, Men Met Along the Trail, 7-33.

13. Judd, Men Met Along the Trail, 22; John Wetherill, "Keet Zeel," March 20, 1934, file H-14, Navajo National Monument library; for more on Hewett's activities, see Hal K. Rothman, On Rims and Ridges: The Los Alamos Area Since 1880 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1992); and Edgar L. Hewett Papers, Box 22, Museum of New Mexico History Library, Santa Fe.

14. William B. Douglass to Commissioner of the General Land Office, March 3, 1909, Navajo National Monument file, Series 6, Record Group 79, National Archives.

15. Ibid., John Wetherill to William B. Douglass, March 7, 1909; William B. Douglass to Commissioner of the General Land Office, March 8, 1909, Navajo National Monument file, Series 6, Record Group 79, National Archives.

16. Ibid., William B. Douglass to Commissioner of the General Land Office, March 22, 1909, Navajo, Series 6, RG 79, NA.

17. U.S. Statutes at Large 36: 2491 (1909); Rothman, Preserving Different Pasts, 48.

18. Douglass to Commissioner of the General Land Office, March 3, 1909; March 22, 1909, Navajo, 6, RG 79, NA.

19. John Wetherill to William B. Douglass, March 7, 1909, Navajo, 6, RG 79, NA; Judd, Men Met Along the Trail, 38; Gillmor and Wetherill, Traders to the Navajo, 71-97.

20. Rothman, Preserving Different Pasts, 76-80; Beatrice Chauvenet, Hewett and Friends: A Biography of Santa Fe's Vibrant Era (Santa Fe: Museum of New Mexico Press, 1983), 82.

21. Byron L. Cummings, Indians I have Known (Tucson: Arizona Silhouettes, 1952), 25-26; Judd, Men Met Along the Trail, 36.

22. John Wetherill, "Betata Kin," (no date), Library, Navajo National Monument. Much later, Neil Judd incorrectly recalled the discovery of Betatakin as occurring around July 5, 1909 in Men Met Along the Trail, 86-87. All the other accounts from the time suggest that the discovery occurred on August 9. In his memoirs, Judd probably confused the discovery of Inscription House in early July with that of Betatakin in August.

23. Gillmor and Wetherill, Traders to the Navajo, 163; Robert J. Holden, "A History of Navajo National Monument", (unpublished typescript), 11; Neil M. Judd, "The Excavation and Repair of Betatakin," Proceedings of the United States National Museum (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1930).

24. Neil M. Judd, "The Discovery of Rainbow Bridge," National Parks Bulletin 9 (1927): 6-16; Judd, Men Met Along the Trail, 41-42; Gillmor and Wetherill, Traders to the Navajo, 169-71.

25. Gillmor and Wetherill, Traders to the Navajo, 169-71; Judd, Men Met Along the Trail, 41-42; Cummings, Indians I Have Known, 39-45; Neil Judd, "The Discovery of Rainbow Bridge," National Parks Bulletin 9 (1927): 6-16; Byron L. Cummings to John and Louisa Wetherill, October 8, 1909, Byron L. Cummings Collection, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson.

26. William B. Douglass to Commissioner of the General Land Office, March 3, 1909; John Wetherill to William B. Douglass, March 7, 1909; William B. Douglass to Commissioner of the General Land Office, March 8, 1909; William B. Douglass to Commissioner of the General Land Office, March 22, 1909, John Wetherill to S. V. Proudfit, Acting Commissioner of Indian Affairs, August 24, 1909; William B. Douglass to William Henry Holmes, September 13, 1909, Navajo, Series 6, RG 79, NA.

27. Rothman, On Rims and Ridges, .

28. S. V. Proudfit to John Wetherill, August 9, 1909; John Wetherill to S. V. Proudfit, August 24, 1909, Navajo, Series 6, RG 79, NA.

29. William Henry Holmes to William B. Douglass, August 19, 1909; William B. Douglass to William Henry Holmes, September 13, 1909, Navajo, Series 6, RG 79, NA.

30. Transcription of an interview with Byron Cummings, July 1942, interviewer unknown, H14, historical file, Navajo National Monument Library; Byron L. Cummings, fieldbook, 68, 123-24, Byron L. Cummings Collection, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson.

31. William B. Douglass to William Henry Holmes, September 13, 1909, Navajo, Series 6, RG 79, NA; Willey, Portraits in American Archaeology, 8; Roy G. Mead, Report to the Commissioner of the General Land Office, May 29, 1914, Navajo, Series 6, RG 79, NA.

32. Frank Pierce to Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, May 6, 1910, Navajo,Series 6, RG 79, NA; Jesse Walter Fewkes, Preliminary Report on a Visit to the Navaho National Monument Bureau of American Ethnology Report 50 (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1911).

33. Judd, Men Met Along the Trail, 3, 99-100; H. C. Rizer to Secretary of the Interior, September 30, 1909; Carmi A. Thompson to H. C. Rizer, October 7, 1909, Navajo, Series 6, RG 79, NA; Gillmor and Wetherill, Traders to the Navajo, 193.

34. Clarence H. Jordan to Commissioner of the General Land Office, January 27, 1912; Frank Pierce to Walter L. Fisher, January 25, 1912; Carmi A. Thompson to Frank Pierce, January 26, 1912; Clarence Jordan to Chief Clerk, Department of the Interior, January 27, 1912; Clarence Jordan to Secretary of the Interior, February 9, 1912; Carmi A. Thompson to Frank Pierce, February 14, 1912; Frank Pierce to Clarence Jordan, February 16, 1912, Navajo, Series 6, RG 79, NA.

35. Acting Secretary of the Interior to Clarence H. Jordan, March 5, 1912; Acting Secretary of the Interior to the President, March 14, 1912, Navajo, Series 6, RG 79, NA; U.S. Statutes at Large 37: 1733 (1912).

1. Rothman, Preserving Different Pasts, 74-89.

2. Ibid, 74-75.

3. Judd, Men Met Along the Trail, 46-54.

4. Roy G. Mead, "Report to the Commissioner of the General Land Office," May 29, 1914, Navajo, Series 6, RG 79, NA.

5. W. J. Lewis to Commissioner of General Land Office, July 15, 1916, Navajo, Series 6, RG 79, NA.

6. Ibid.

7. Rothman, Preserving Different Pasts, 83-84.

8. John Ise, Our National Park Policy: A Critical History (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1961), 185-93; Runte, National Parks, 98-104; Robert Shankland, Steve Mather of the National Parks 3rd ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1970), 51-53, 100-06.

9. Hal Rothman, "A Regular Ding-Dong Fight: Agency Culture and Evolution in the NPS-USFS Dispute 1916-1937," Western Historical Quarterly 20 (May 1989):141-62.

10. Ronald A. Foresta, America's National Parks and Their Keepers (Washington, D. C.: Resources for the Future, 1984), 18-30.

11. Rothman, Preserving Different Pasts, 89-116.

12. Joseph J. Cotter to John Wetherill, April 13, 1916; Horace M. Albright to John Wetherill, April 27, 1917; F. W. Griffith to John Wetherill, August 6, 1917; F. W. Griffith to John Wetherill, August 16, 1917, Navajo, Series 6, RG 79, NA.

13. John Wetherill to F. W. Griffith, August 18, 1917, Navajo, Series 6, RG 79, NA.

14. Charles D. Walcott to Robert B. Marshall, December 18, 1916, Navajo, Series 6, RG 79, NA.

15. Henry Ashurst to Franklin K. Lane, January 30, 1917; Byron L. Cummings to Henry Ashurst, no date; Byron L. Cummings to Marcus A. Smith, January 25, 1917; Marcus A. Smith to Secretary of the Interior, January 30, 1917; Joseph J. Cotter to Henry F. Ashurst, February 5, 1917; Joseph J. Cotter to Marcus A. Smith, February 5, 1917; Charles D. Walcott to Bo Sweeney, February 7, 1917; Charles D. Walcott to Bo Sweeney, Navajo, Series 6, RG 79, NA; Henry F. Ashurst to Byron L. Cummings, January 30, 1917; Joseph J. Cotter to Henry F. Ashurst, February 5, 1917; Charles D. Walcott to Byron L. Cummings, February 27, 1917, Byron L. Cummings Collection, Arizona State Museum, Tucson.

16. Judd, Men Met Along the Trail, 85.

17. Ibid., 85-86.

18. Ibid., 86-93; Neil Judd to William Henry Holmes, November 6, 1917, Navajo, Series 6, RG 79, NA.

19. Rothman, Preserving Different Pasts, 89-118.

20. Ibid., 119-40.

21. Judd, Men Met Along the Trail, 42-43, 86.

22. McNitt, Anasazi, 79-80; Seasonal Ranger Turpen to Superintendent, Navajo, May 26, 1971, File H14, Navajo National Monument Library; Fewkes, A Preliminary Visit to Navajo, 5-9; Hegemann, Navaho Trading Days, 225.

23. Fred S. Garing, untitled memoir, May 1971, Navajo National Monument Library; Hegemann, Navaho Trading Days, 224.

24. Diary of M. D. Thomas, File H1815, Navajo National Monument.

25. Hegemann, Navaho Trading Days, 274-75, 293.

26. Frank Pinkley to Harry Rorick, May 22, 1931, Navajo, Series 6, RG 79, NA; Rothman, Preserving Different Pasts, 114-15, 178-82.

27. Elizabeth Rorick to Horace Albright, July 26, 1931, Navajo, Series 6, RG 79, NA. Elizabeth Rorick and Elizabeth Compton Hegemann are the same person. Compton was her maiden name, and she took the name of each of her husbands. Nor was she self-conscious about her frequent changes of name. She closed her 1931 letter to Albright: "I think you remember me, but as the Mrs. Harrison of several years ago--in Navajo costume."

28. Hegemann, Navaho Trading Days, 251.

29. Agnes M. Cleaveland to Arno B. Cammerer, October 11, 1933; A. E. Demaray to Frank Pinkley, January 18, 1934; A. E. Demaray to Frank Pinkley, January 20, 1934; Frank Pinkley to Horace M. Albright, January 25, 1934, Navajo, Series 6, RG 79, NA; Irwin Hayden to Frank Pinkley, February 16, 1934, Frank Pinkley to Arno B. Cammerer, June 30, 1934, Navajo National Monument file, Western Archeological and Conservation Center.

30. Frank Pinkley to Arno B. Cammerer, February 9, 1934, Navajo, Series 7, RG 79, NA.

31. Walter Atwell to Frank Pinkley, March 9, 1934, Navajo, Series 7, RG 79, NA.

32. Gladwell Richardson and Phillip Reed Rulon ed., Navajo Trader (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1986), 93-94.

33. Ansel Hall to Frank Pinkley, January 20, 1930; Frank Pinkley to Ansel Hall, February 12, 1930, File 000 General, Navajo National Monument Library.

34. Ise, Our National Park Policy 255-61; Horace Albright memo to Arno B. Cammerer, Arthur E. Demaray, W. B. Lewis, and George Moskey, March 15, 1930, Navajo, Series 6, RG 79, NA.

35. Roger Toll to Horace M. Albright, March 13, 1931; Roger Toll, "Report on the "Proposed Navajo National Park," April 29, 1931, 000 General, Navajo National Monument Library.

36. Horace Albright to Charles J. Rhoads, June 12, 10931; Horace Albright to Robert S. Yard, June 15, 1931; O-32, Proposed National Parks, Navajo, RG 79, NA.

37. Charles J. Rhoads to Horace M. Albright, June 19, 1931, 0-32, Navajo, RG 79, NA; White, Roots of Dependency, 218-19, 248-49.

38. Conrad L. Wirth, memo, August 8, 1931; Brooks memo for George A. Moskey, November 4, 1931; George A. Moskey, memo to Conrad L. Wirth, November 19, 1931; Horace M. Albright to Charles J. Rhoads, December 5, 1931; Charles J. Rhoads to Horace M. Albright, December 11, 1931, 0-32, Navajo, RG 79, NA.

39. Donald L. Parman, The Navajo and the New Deal (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976), 1-41; Conrad L. Wirth, memo to H. C. Bryant, April 24, 1933; "Proposed Navajo National Park," attached to Wirth memo, 0-32, Navajo, RG 79, NA; 72nd Congress, P. L. 403, An Act to Permanently Set Aside Certain Lands in Utah as an Addition to the Navajo Reservation and for Other Purposes.

40. Horace M. Albright as told to Robert Cahn, The Birth of the National Park Service: The Founding Years 1913-1933, 275, 282-97; "Proposed Navajo National Park," attached to Wirth memo, 0-32, Navajo, RG 79, NA.

41. M. R. Tillotson to Horace M. Albright, September 20, 1933, 0-32, Navajo, RG 79, NA.

42. Parman, Navajo and the New Deal, 42-48, 133-59; White, Roots of Dependency, 252-89.

43. Rothman, Preserving Different Pasts, 162-69.

44. Holden, "A History of Navajo National Monument," 17.

45. Frank Pinkley to Arno B. Cammerer, June 20, 1934, Navajo, Series 7, RG 79, NA.

46. Robert H. Rose to Arno B. Cammerer, July 28, 1934, File 000, General, Navajo National Monument Library.

47. John Wetherill to Frank Pinkley, May 29, 1938, Navajo National Monument file, Western Archeological and Conservation Center, Tucson; John Wetherill profile, File H1815, Navajo National Monument Library.

48. "Southwestern National Monuments Monthly Report," March 1938, 204-05; "Southwestern National Monuments Monthly Report," April 1938, 294-96.

1. Sallie Brewer Van Valkenburgh to Robert Holden, February 11, 1965, File H14, Navajo National Monument.

2. Ibid.

3. Frank A. Kittredge to Arno B. Cammerer, May 28, 1934, Navajo National Monument File, Western Archeological and Conservation Center.

4. Frank A. Kittredge to Arno B. Cammerer, April 7, 1934; J. E. Balmer, Superintendent Western Agency, to John Wetherill, December 23, 1933; A. E. Demaray to Frank A. Kittredge, June 16, 1934, Navajo National Monument files, Western Archeological and Conservation Center.

5. W. B. McDougall, "Special Report: Beaver Habitat at Navajo National Monument," August 28, 1939; Natt N. Dodge to James W. Brewer, December 5, 1939; Hilary A. Tolson to Hugh Miller, no date, Navajo files, Western Archeological and Conservation Center.

6. Charles A. Richey, "Report of Inspection of Navajo National Monument," November 9, 1940, File 600, National Monument Library.

7. James L. Brewer to Byron L. Cummings, August 14, 1942, Byron L. Cummings Collection, Arizona Historical Society.

8. Holden, "Administrative History," 22; William Wilson to Newton P. Drury, June 30, 1944; William Wilson to Newton P. Drury, August 3, 1945, Navajo, File A26, Western Archeological and Conservation Center Library, Tucson.

9. Eric Goldman, The Crucial Decade--and After: America 1945-1960 (New York: Random House, 1956) 4-5, 12-15; Bernard DeVoto, "The National Parks" Fortune 35 (June 1947): 120-21; Runte, National Parks, 156-61.

10. James L. Brewer, "Memorandum for the Director," June 8, 1948, Navajo, Report 1a1, Navajo National Monument; "Calendar Year Visitation Statistics," A3015: Reports, Travel, Monthly, Navajo National Monument.

11. James Brewer to Newton P. Drury, March 4, 1949; James Brewer to Newton P. Drury, July 11, 1949; John M. Davis to James Brewer, June 3, 1948, Navajo, File, A26, WACC.

12. James Brewer to Superintendent, November 18, 1940, Navajo National Monument file, WACC; Charles A. Richey, "Report of Inspection of Navajo National Monument," November 9, 1940, File 600, National Monument Library.

13. Bob Black, interview with Hal Rothman, translated by Clarence N. Gorman, January 5, 1991; Rothman, Preserving Different Pasts, 140-44.

14. Holden, "Administrative History," 24-25; Rothman, Preserving Different Pasts, 180-84; Hugh Miller to John M. Davis, May 8, 1953, H3015, Navajo National Monument.

15. Hubert Laughter, interview with Hal Rothman, translated by Clarence N. Gorman, January 5, 1991; John Aubuchon to John M. Davis, March 15, 1953, Navajo, D32, Grounds, Denver Federal Records Center.

16. James W. Brewer, "Navajo National Monument Monthly Report," September 23, 1942; William W. Wilson to M. R. Tillotson, July 21, 1944; James W. Brewer to Erik Reed, April 12, 1948, Navajo National Monument file, WACC; John Aubuchon to John M. Davis, March 15, 1953, Navajo, D32 Grounds, Denver Federal Records Center; Davis to Aubuchon, May 13, 1953; Aubuchon to Davis, June 17, 1953, Navajo, H30 Archeological and Historical Structures, Denver Federal Records Center; Gordon R. Vivian to John M. Davis, August 17, 1954, Navajo, H2215 Archeological and Historical Research, Denver Federal Records Center.

17. John J. Aubuchon to John M. Davis, June 17, 1953; M. R. Tillotson to John M. Davis, July 2, 1953, Navajo, H30 Archeological and Historic Structures, Denver Federal Records Center.

18. John J. Aubuchon, "Report on Diorama of Keet Seel Ruin, Navajo National Monument, no date, Navajo National Monument file, Southwest Regional Office Interpretation Library, Santa Fe.

19. Interpretation, 069.5, NAVA 1247, Navajo National Monument archive; Hal Rothman interview with Hubert Laughter, translated by Clarence N. Gorman, January 5, 1991.

20. Ise, Our National Park Policy, 546-50; Rothman, 222-23.

21. Peter Iverson, The Navajo Nation (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1981), 56-57.

22. Superintendent's Monthly Narrative, March 1958, Navajo National Monument Library.

23. Sanford Hill to Hugh Miller, July 5, 1957, Navajo, D30: Roads and Trails; Edward B. Danson to Hugh Miller, November 25, 1958, Navajo, D3415: Buildings; "MISSION 66 Prospectus: Navajo National Monument, April 20, 1956," A9815: MISSION 66 Programs, Denver Federal Records Center.

24. Buddy Martin interview with Hal Rothman, Durango, Colorado, August 10, 1990.

25. Art White to Hugh Miller, August 28, 1960, D3415 Buildings: Construction and Maintenance, Denver Federal Records Center.

26. Buddy Martin interview with Hal Rothman, August 10, 1990.

27. Art White interview with Richard B. McCaslin, June 9, 1990; Bob Black interview with Hal Rothman, translated by Mary Lou Smith and Clarence N. Gorman, January 5, 1991.

28. Superintendent's Monthly Report, March 1958, Navajo; Hugh Miller to John M. Davis, May 25, 1956, Navajo, A9815: MISSION 66, Denver Federal Records Center.

29. James L. Brewer to Frank Pinkley, December 1, 1938, 000 General, Denver Federal Records Center.

30. Bill P. Acrey, Navajo History, 281-85.

31. Superintendent's Monthly Report, July 1958, Navajo.

32. Remarks of Meredith M. Guillet at Southwest Region Superintendent's Conference, March 24, 1965, A82 Special Events, Denver Federal Records Center; Bob Black interview, January 5, 1991; Superintendent's Monthly Report, June 1958, Navajo.

33. Superintendent's Monthly Report, July 1961.

34. Superintendent's Monthly Report, July 1958; Holden, "Administrative History," 26.

35. Superintendent's Monthly Report, March 1958; June 1958; April 1960, Navajo.

36. "Superintendent's Monthly Narrative Report," November 1959.

37. Superintendent's Monthly Report, March 1961; Thomas Allen to Conrad L. Wirth, December 12, 1961, A82: MISSION 66, Denver Federal Records Center.

38. Superintendent's Monthly Report, November 1961.

39. Superintendent's Monthly Report, July 1962, Navajo.

40. Daniel Beard to Regional Director, April 29, 1966, L1415, Navajo National Monument.

40. Gayle E. Manges to Regional Director, January 28, 1991; Frank F. Kowski to Raymond Nakai, May 26, 1969; Frank F. Kowski to William McPherson, May 20, 1969; Frank F. Kowski to Director, May 12, 1969, John Cook memo to Frank F. Kowski, March 7, 1969, A3815(RD) Southwest Regional Office, Santa Fe.

1. National Park Service, MISSION 66 Prospectus, Navajo National Monument, April 20, 1956, Navajo, A9815: MISSION 66, Denver Federal Records Center.

2. Bud Martin interview with Hal Rothman, August 10, 1990.

3. Ibid; Art White interview with Richard B. McCaslin, June 10, 1990; 728.992 Visitor Shower text, NPS History file, Navajo National Monument.

4. Art White interview, June 10, 1990.

5. Calendar Year, A3015: Reports, Travel, Monthly, September 30, 1965; Jack R. Williams to Frank H. Carson, January 27, 1966, Navajo, A3815: Public Relations with Federal, State, and Local Agencies, Denver Federal Records Center.

6. Dale S. King to John J. Aubuchon, October 24, 1952, Navajo, D6215 Museum exhibit activities, Navajo National Monument.

7. Acrey, Navajo History, 284; Guillet, "Remarks," March 24, 1965; Sanford Hill to Hugh Miller, July 5, 1957, D30: Roads and Trails, Denver Federal Records Center.

8. E. L. Holmes report, May 29, 1964, D3415 Buildings: Construction and Maintenance, Denver Federal Records Center; Art White interview, June 10, 1990.

9. Press Release, Visitor Center Dedication, no date; A8215: Special Events, Denver Federal Records Center; Superintendent's Monthly Narrative for July 1965, August 4, 1965, A2823, Navajo National Monument.

10. Robert Holden, telephone conversation with Hal Rothman, May 24, 1990; White interview, June 10, 1990.

11. Press release, Visitor Center dedication, no date; Edward B. Danson to Jack R. Williams, June 30, 1966, A8215: Special Events-Dedications.

12. Jack R. Williams to George Hartzog, June 28, 1966, Navajo National Monument, A8215; Jack R. Williams to Regional Director, January 5, 1968, Navajo National Monument, A6423; Jack R. Williams to Regional Director, January 5, 1968, Navajo A6423.

13. Holden conversation with Rothman; Art White to Daniel B. Beard, July 27, 1963, D22: Public Works Acceleration Program, Denver Federal Records Center.

14. Charles B. Voll, John Cook, Richard B. Hardin, Rodney E. Collins, and Albert Schroeder, "Management Appraisal of Navajo National Monument, December 9-10, 1969," 2, Navajo, A5427, Management Appraisals, Navajo National Monument.

15. Robert Holden telephone conversation; Art White interview; P. J. Ryan telephone conversation with Hal Rothman, May 25, 1990; Bud Martin interview; William G. Binnewies to Acting Regional Chief, Interpretation and Visitor Services, September 13, 1969; Doug Hubbard to Director Southwest Region, August 26, 1970; Monte E. Fitch to William G. Binnewies, September 1, 1970, Navajo National Monument, K1815-OI.

16. Robert S. Luntey to George Miller, February 8, 1968; George Miller to George Hartzog, February 16, 1968, D18, Navajo National Monument.

17. Art White interview; Robert Holden telephone conversation; Bud Martin interview.

18. John Cook to Frank F. Kowski, July 31, 1968, A2215-01, Navajo; John Ochsner to Chief, Denver Service Center, "Report on a Field Trip to Navajo National Monument," April 3, 1967, Navajo, A2623, Denver Federal Records Center.

19. William G. Binneweis to Frank F. Kowski, September 22, 1969, Navajo A6423-A.

20. Art White interview; Albert E. Ward to Chief, Arizona Archeological Center, May 16, 1973, H2215 Navajo-Inscription House, Navajo National Monument Library.

21. John B. Aubuchon to General Superintendent, September 29, 1952, Navajo National Monument file, Western Archeological and Conservation Center, Tucson.

22. Superintendent's Monthly Narrative, April 1961, Navajo National Monument.

23. Art White interview; Bud Martin interview.

24. Charles B. Voll interview with Hal Rothman, December 5, 1989.

25. Voll et. al., "Management Appraisal," December 9-10, 1969.

26. Art White interview.

27. Charles B. Voll interview.

28. Frank Hastings to Hal Rothman, February 25, 1991.

29. William G. Binneweis to Director, December 21, 1970, Navajo, A6435, Southwest Regional Office Interpretation Library, Santa Fe.

30. Navajo National Monument Backcountry Management Plan, 1974, H2215 Resource Management Plans, Navajo.

31. Ibid.

32. Frank E. Hastings to Regional Director, Southwest Region, July 6, 1978, F5419, Navajo National Monument.

33. Ronald R. Switzer and Edward D. Carlin, "Management Evaluation, Navajo National Monument," August 24-26, 1982, A5427; Dan Murphy, "Trip Report," August 7, 1980, Navajo, A5425, Southwest Regional Office Interpretation Library.

34. Noberto Ortega interview with Hal Rothman, January 5, 1991; John Loliet interview; see also Bernard Shanks, "The Endangered Ranger" National Parks 65 1-2 (January-February 1991): 32-36.

35. Frank Hastings to Hal Rothman, February 25, 1991.

36. Ibid.

37. Foresta, America's National Parks and Their Keepers, 84-93.

38. Flora Ortega interview with Hal Rothman, February 22, 1990; Switzer and Carlin, "Management Evaluation;" John Laughter interview, January 5, 1991; John Loliet interview.

39. Clarence N. Gorman interview.

40. Bob Black interview; Superintendent's Monthly Narrative, 1989-1990, A2823, Navajo.

41. Jack R. Williams to Adolph Maloney, March 3, 1966, A44 Navajo. This letter to the president of the Tuba City Chapter was a prototype for the presidents of the Oljato, Kayenta, Shonto, and Dinnehotso chapters.

42. David M. Gaines to Chief, Division of Planning and Design, Southwest Region, October 28, 1982, Navajo, A5427, Southwest Regional Office Interpretation Library; Gorman interview.

43. John Laughter interview; Clarence N. Gorman interview; Bruce Mellberg interview with Hal Rothman, January 5, 1991.

44. Chief, Division of Protection and Visitor Use Management, Southwest Region to Associate Regional Director, Park Operations, April 21, 1981, A7615, Navajo National Monument; Frank Osterwald to Charles B. Voll, April 28, 1982, Navajo, D-30, SWRO Interpretation Library.

45. Switzer and Carlin, "Management Evaluation;" Charles Voll to Robert I. Kerr, May 3, 1982, D-30, Navajo.

46. Clarence N. Gorman interview.

47. John E. Cook to Regional Director, Southwest Region, July 31, 1968, A6435, Navajo National Monument; Navajo National Monument, Revised Statement for Management, Major Issues Section, no date, Navajo National Monument file, Regional Historian's Office, Southwest Regional Office.

48. Bruce Mellberg interview; Clarence N. Gorman interview.

49. Travis, "Draft Archeological Survey;" Superintendent's Monthly Report, January 1963, Navajo National Monument.

50. Hubert Laughter interview; John Loliet interview; P. J. Ryan telephone conversation; Bud Martin interview.

51. Frank Hastings to Hal Rothman, February 25, 1991.

52. John Loliet interview.

1. Compton, Navaho Trading Days, 236.

2. Dale S. King to John J. Aubuchon, October 24, 1952, Navajo, D6215: Museum Exhibit Activities, Denver Federal Records Center; John Cook interview with Hal Rothman, April 24, 1990; Bud Martin interview.

3. Clarence N. Gorman interview; John Cook interview.

4. Bob Black interview; Superintendent's Monthly Narrative, 1956-1962, A2823, Navajo.

5. Acrey, Navajo History, 201-04; Mary Shepardson, "Development of Navajo Tribal Government," 624-35; Peter Iverson, "The Emerging Navajo Nation," 636-41, in Alfonso Ortiz ed., The Handbook of North American Indians: 10 Southwest (Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1983).

6. John Cook to Regional Director, November 30, 1967, L1425, Navajo National Monument.

7. Hubert Laughter interview; Holden, "Administrative History," 24; Bob Black interview; no author, "Seth Bigman Completes First Season as Interpretive Ranger," Inside Interior (November 1948), 6.

8. Hubert Laughter interview.

9. Delbert Smallcanyon interview with Hal Rothman, translated by Clarence N. Gorman, January 5, 1991.

10. John Laughter interview with Hal Rothman, January 5, 1991.

11. John Laughter interview; Hubert Laughter interview; Bob Black interview; and Delbert Smallcanyon interview.

12. Switzer and Carlin, "Management Appraisal;" Clarence N. Gorman interview; John Laughter interview.

13. Acrey, Navajo History, 35-44, 73-81; Raymond Friday Locke, The Book of the Navajo (Los Angeles: Mankind Publishing Company, 1989) fourth edition, 35-61; McNitt, The Indian Traders, 270-76; White, Roots of Dependency, 236-49.

14. William G. Binnewies telephone conversation with Hal Rothman, May 30, 1990.

15. Ibid.

16. James L. Brewer, "Memorandum for the Regional Director," December 25, 1947, Navajo, P90: Wage Board Matters, Denver Federal Records Center.

17. James L. Brewer to Luis Gastellum, January 15, 1948, Navajo, P90: Wage Board Matters, Denver Federal Records Center.

18. Acrey, Navajo History, 296; Roland Richert to Regional Administrative Officer, August 28, 1958, Navajo National Monument files, P90: Wage Board Matters, Denver Federal Records Center; Meredith Guillet to Regional Director, March 4, 1964, Navajo National Monument L3035.

19. Acrey, Navajo History, 284; Iverson, "The Emerging Navajo Nation," 636.

20. Reports of the Golden Eagle incident, Golden Eagle file, Navajo National Monument A7623: Accidents, Injuries, and Death.

21. Harold Timmons to Frank Hastings, February 8, 1974, Navajo A3817.

22. Frank Hastings to Regional Director, February 11, 1974, Navajo, A3817.

23. William G. Binneweis telephone conversation.

24. Frank Hastings to Hal Rothman, February 25, 1991; Binnewies telephone conversation; Art White interview with Richard B. McCaslin, June 11, 1990.

25. P. J. Ryan telephone conversation.

26. Delbert Smallcanyon interview with Hal Rothman, translated by Clarence N. Gorman, January 5, 1991; John Cook interview with Hal Rothman, April 24, 1990.

27. John Laughter interview.

28. Mary Lou Smith comments as she translated Bob Black's interview, January 5, 1991; Concessioners, Horse, NPS History file, Navajo National Monument Archive.

29. Mary Whitle to Arthur H. White, November 13, 1962, Navajo National Monument, A36; Edd and Bertha Austin, "Early History of Navajo National Monument," transcript of oral history interviews with Larry Isaacs, no date, H18, Navajo National Monument.

30. Shankland, Steve Mather of the National Parks, 7, 92-99, 120-27.

31. P. J. Ryan telephone conversation;

32. P. J. Ryan telephone conversation; William G. Binnewies telephone conversation; Carl M. Hinckley to Stewart L. Udall, June 17, 1966; Jack R. Williams to Regional Director, September 2, 1966; Mildred Heflin to Jack Williams, August 28, 1966; Thomas M. Newell to Kevin McKibben, July 26, 1967; Barbara Horton to Frank F. Kowski, April 15, 1968, Navajo National Monument, H36.

33. Harold Timmons to Clarence Gorman, April 13, 1973, Navajo National Monument, A36.

34. P. J. Ryan telephone conversation.

35. Frank Hastings to Fannie Etcitty, September 6, 1979, A44: Arts and Crafts Shop, Navajo National Monument.

36. Art White to Peter McDonald, March 18, 1980; Frank E. Paul to Art White, June 6, 1980; Robert Wilson to Fannie Etcitty, June 16, 1980, A44: Arts and Craft Shop, Navajo.

37. Switzer and Carlin, "Management Appraisal."

38. Cloyd Kump to Associate Regional Director for Park Operations, Southwest Regional Office, August 11, 1988; Clarence Gorman to John Cook, September 9, 1988, A44: Arts and Craft Shop, Navajo.

39. Delbert Smallcanyon interview; Bob Black interview.

40. P. J. Ryan telephone conversation; Delbert Smallcanyon interview; Hubert Laughter interview.

41. Gayle E. Manges to Regional Director, August 31, 1988, NPS.SA.0461, Navajo, Regional Historian's file, Santa Fe.

42. Hubert Laughter interview; William G. Binnewies telephone conversation.

1. Willey and Sabloff, American Archaeology, 42-87.

2. Charles H. Lange and Carroll L. Riley eds., The Southwestern Journals of Adolph F. Bandelier 1880-1882 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1966), 1-17.

3. Rothman, Preserving Different Pasts, 11-18; Willey and Sabloff, American Archaeology, 48-52.

4. Curtis M. Hinsley, Jr., Savages and Scientists, 190-230; William H. Goetzmann, Army Exploration in the American West 1803-1863 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1959), covers exploration prior to 1860; William H. Goetzmann, Exploration and Empire: The Explorer and the Scientist in the Winning of the American West (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1966) covers the great surveys of the post-Civil War era.

5. McNitt, Anasazi, 160-66; Rothman, Preserving Different Pasts, 18-22.

6. Rothman, Preserving Different Pasts, 18-22.

7. C. W. Ceram, Gods, Graves, and Scholars, 30-67, 241-336.

8. Rothman, Preserving Different Pasts, 34-51.

9. J. Richard Ambler, Archeological Assessment Navajo National Monument (Santa Fe: Southwest Cultural Resources Center, 1985) No. 9, 23.

10. Ambler, Archeological Assessment, 24-27; Travis, "Draft Archeological Survey."

11. Ambler, Archeological Assessment,, 25.

12. Ibid, 26.

13. Ambler, Archeological Assessment, 26-27; Willey and Sabloff, American Archeology, 118; C. W. Ceram, The First American: A Story of North American Archaeology, (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, Inc., 1971), 126-32.

14. Ambler, Archeological Assessment, 25.

15. McNitt, Anasazi, 80-84.

16. Ibid, 160-62.

17. Willey, Portraits in American Archeology, 1-28.

18. S. V. Proudfit to John Wetherill, August 9, 1909; John Wetherill to S. V. Proudfit, August 24, 1909; William Henry Holmes to William B. Douglass, August 19, 1909; William B. Douglass to William Henry Holmes, September 13, 1909, Navajo, Series 6, RG 79, NA.

19. Fewkes, Report on Navajo National Monument, 10-35.

20. Judd, Men Met Along the Trail, 85-103.

21. Ibid, 88-94.

22. Ibid, 89-90.

23. Rothman, Preserving Different Pasts, 119-31.

24. Ambler, Archeological Assessment, 25-27; Travis, "Survey of Navajo National Monument."

25. Rothman, Preserving Different Pasts, 127-29.

26. Ambler, Archeological Assessment, 31.

27. Holden, "Administrative History," 17; Ambler, Archeological Assessment, 29.

28. John Wetherill to Frank Pinkley, February 19, 1934; March 13, 1934, Navajo National Monument file, Western Archeological and Conservation Center.

29. Charles Steen, "Stabilization of Inscription House, Navajo National Monument, August, 1940" (Santa Fe: National Park Service, 1940).

30. Andrew L. Christenson, "The Last of the Great Expeditions: The Rainbow Bridge/Monument Valley Expedition, 1933-38," Plateau, 58 4, 1-32; Travis, "Survey of Navajo National Monument."

31. Irwin Hayden to Harold S. Colton, March 2, 1934; Irwin Hayden to Frank Pinkley, March 13, 1934; Irwin Hayden to Frank Pinkley, March 20, 1934, Navajo National Monument file, WACC; Lyndon Hargrave to Ansel F. Hall, March 5, 1934; Frank Pinkley to Arno B. Cammerer, February 7, 1934, NA, RG 79, Navajo National Monument, Series 7.

32. Jesse L. Nusbaum to Frank Pinkley, February 10, 1934; Ansel F. Hall, Memorandum to (Harold L.) Bryant, March 13, 1934, NA, RG 79, Navajo National Monument, Series 7; Frank Kittredge to Arno B. Cammerer, June 20, 1934, Navajo National Monument file, WACC.

33. Roland S. Richert, "Stabilization Records, Betatakin Ruin, Navajo National Monument," 1958, Navajo National Monument; Roland S. Richert, "Stabilization Records, Keet Seel Ruin, Navajo National Monument," 1958, Navajo National Monument.

34. Ibid.

35. Ambler, Archeological Assessment, 31.

36. Ibid, 32.

37. Jeffrey S. Dean, Chronological Analysis of Tsegi Phase Sites In Northeastern Arizona (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1969).

38. Jeffrey S. Dean, "Chronological Analysis of Tsegi Phase Sites In Northeastern Arizona," (Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Arizona, 1967), iii, xxiv-xxv, 654-676.

39. Jeffrey S. Dean interview with Richard B. McCaslin, June 11, 1990.

40. Albert E. Ward, Inscription House: Two Research Reports, (Flagstaff: Museum of Northern Arizona Technical Series #16, 1975).

41. Art White interview with Richard B. McCaslin, June 9, 1990; Jeffrey S. Dean interview with Richard B. McCaslin, June 11, 1990.

42. Ibid.

43. Frank Hastings to Hal Rothman, February 25, 1991.

44. Ambler, Archeological Assessment, 34.

45. Ibid., 79.

1. Ise, Our National Park Policy, 534-56.

2. Runte, National Parks, 197-208.

3. Ise, Our National Park Policy, 557-72; Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 215-19; Runte, National Parks, 172-196.

4. John C. Freemuth, National Parks and the Politics of External Threats (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1991), 5.

5. Ibid, 19.

6. Foresta, America's National Parks and Their Keepers, 22528, 232-37; Freemuth, External Threats, 21.

7. Acrey, Navajo History, 287-89.

8. Marjane Ambler, Breaking the Iron Bonds: Indian Control of Energy Development (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1990), 58-60.

9. Hubert Laughter interview with Hal Rothman, translated by Clarence Gorman, January 5, 1991.

10. Ambler, Breaking the Iron Bonds, 222-24.

11. E. H. McGavock to Gerard S. Witucki, October 20, 1970, Navajo National Monument, L54 NAVA/USGS.

12. Milford Fletcher to Frank Hastings, July 16, 1979, N3619, Navajo National Monument; Ambler, Indian Energy, 223.

13. Frank Hastings to Deputy Regional Director, November 20, 1979, Regional Historian's File, Southwest Regional Office, Santa Fe.

14. Ambler, Breaking the Iron Bonds, 222-24.

15. Terri Martin, "How Can We Protect Southwestern National Parks, National Parks and Conservation Magazine, March 1980, 4-9.

16. Samuel P. Hays, Beauty, Health, and Permanence: Environmental Politics in the United States, 1955-1985 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 121-22.

17. Frank Hastings to Deputy Regional Director, November 20, 1979.

18. Ibid.

19. Regional Director to Superintendent, Navajo, February 12, 1979, Navajo National Monument, H3615.

20. William C. Malm and John V. Molenar, "Visibility Measurements in National Parks in the Western United States," Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association 34 9 (September 1984), 899-904.

21. Terri Martin, "How Can We Protect Southwestern National Parks, National Parks and Conservation Magazine, March 1980, 4-9; John E. Cook to Regional Director, January 6, 1970, Navajo National Monument file L24, Fort Worth Federal Records Center.

22. White, Roots of Dependency, 228-29; Frank Kittredge to Director, April 7, 1934, Navajo National Monument file, WACC.

23. Frank Hastings to Deputy Regional Director, November 20, 1979.

24. Frank Hastings to Hal Rothman, February 25, 1991.