1. Long, "Journal of the Marches," 1700.

2. Shambo's account in Alva Noyes, In the Land of the Chinook, 76.

3. Tilton to Surgeon General, October 26, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General. Shambo said, "I told them it was buffalo. You see it had snowed that night and the snow had blown into the hair of the buffalo and made them look white and spotted." Shambo's account in Alva Noyes, In the Land of the Chinook, 76. Shambo stated that Miles sent him to reconnoiter and that he shot one of the animals, and that the rest of the herd "charged right down through" the army and Indian positions. Havre Plaindealer, August 22, 1903. See also Army and Navy Journal, December 8, 1877; Baird, "General Miles's Indian Campaigns," 364; Miles, Personal Recollections, 274-75; and Miles, Serving the Republic, 178.

4. Just what action Miles would have taken if confronted with several hundred Lakota warriors in addition to the Nez Perces is uncertain. In Miles, Personal Recollections (275), he stated only that "I concluded that we could use our artillery and quite a large portion of our troops against any additional enemy and still hold the fruits of the victory already gained."

5. For details of the Sioux factor, see Cheyenne Daily Leader, October 6, 1877, as cited in DeMontravel, "Miles," 4-5; John Turner, North-West Mounted Police, 2:340-41; Manzione, "I Am Looking to the North for My Life," 82-98; and, especially, Utley, Lance and the Shield, 193, 371-72 n. 14.

6. Romeyn, "Capture of Chief Joseph," 289.

7. Ibid.; McWhorter, "Stake Tabulation of the Bear's Paw Mountain Battle Field"; and C. Raymond Noyes, plat, "Battle of the Bear's Paw," NA. Regarding the cisterns, see Mrs. M. E. Plassman, "Disputed Points Relating to Events Incident to the Battle of the Bear Paws," Eureka Journal, April 28, 1926.

8. The willingness of some Nez Perces to negotiate on October 1 and again on the fifth suggests not only the traditional independence of the Nee-Me-Poo band units, but perhaps also the continuation of the factiousness that had plagued the people since Canyon Creek.

9. Baird, "Capture of Chief Joseph," 212-13.

10. "Capture of the Nez Perces, Young Two Moon's Account." The Nez Perce No Feather said that "no Cheyenne or Sioux scouts visited our camp at Bear's Paw at any time nor did they talk with us." Weptas Nut (No Feather), Interview.

11. "Capture of the Nez Perces, Young Two Moon's Account." In another Cheyenne version, Miles got angry at the scouts for going among the Nez Perces, whereupon High Wolf grabbed the colonel by the collar and said: "You told us to try to get these people to come in and not be harmed. They are Indians like us. Why don't you talk to them?" It is not clear from this account whether this incident preceded the negotiations of October 1 or those of October 5 leading to the surrender. Stands In Timber and Liberty, Cheyenne Memories, 228.

12. Yellow Bull (who described the meeting as having occurred on October 2) maintained that the soldiers raised the white flag. McWhorter, Yellow Wolf, 214. This is very likely correct given the fact that Miles initiated the communication. Charles K. Bucknam and G. H. Snow, who were present, stated that "during the temporary truce a white flag floated over the Nez Perces' stronghold. The flag stayed during the whole of the second day, and was visible on the morning of the third. It consisted of a whole sheet of stolen bunting." New York Herald, October 11, 1877.

13. Joseph [Heinmot Tooyalakekt], "An Indian's Views," 428.

14. Tilton to Surgeon General, October 26, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General; and Joseph [Heinmot Tooyalakekt], "An Indian's Views," 428.

15. Author's field notes, August 27, 1995.

16. Tilton to Surgeon General, October 26, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General. Elsewhere, Tilton said of Joseph: "He is a man of splendid physique, dignified bearing and handsome features. His usual expression was serious, but occasionally a smile would light up his face, which impressed us very favorably." Tilton, "After the Nez Perces," 403.

17. Tilton said that this man was the "one whose portrait was given in Harpers Weekly as Joseph." Tilton to Surgeon General, October 26, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General. Tom Hill stated that he had a precouncil meeting with Miles, who interrogated him about the Nez Perce leadershipwho was present in the camp and which leaders had been killed. After receiving a hearty meal, Tom Hill and Miles went half way to the Nez Perce position, and Hill called over for Joseph to come forth and he did. Hill's account is in U.S. Senate, Memorial of the Nez Perce, 31-34. A similar account by Tom Hill is in Curtis, North American Indian, 8:171-72, in which he identified the other four men as Hiyatommon (Shouter), Wepteshwahaiuht, Kalowit, and Pahwema (171), although in Hill's account to the Senate, he stated that Joseph came over with but two other men (32). See also Walter M. Camp to Scott, September 22, 1913, folder 23, box 1, Camp Papers, BYU. A Nez Perce account largely derived from White Bird stated that "General Miles, like many others, supposed Joseph to be the leader of the hostiles and wanted his surrender in place of the real leaderLooking Glass. This suited the Indians exactly and they allowed Joseph to go to the camp of the soldiers." MacDonald, "Nez Perces," 270.

18. Zimmer, Frontier Soldier, 123.

19. Ibid.

20. Ibid. Captain Snyder noted: "No shots fired today, the time being consumed in negotiations looking to surrender of the Indians." Snyder, "Diary," October 1, 1877. It is not certain if the burials occurred immediately or later. Sergeant Stanislaus Roy, who arrived with the wagon train late on the first, remembered that "to my sad surprise there layed [sic] my two friends Sgt. McDermott and Dreslew and 18 others dead layed in line on a little noled [knoll] covered over with their own blankets. Capt Hale and Biddle [a] little to the right, also Dead." Roy to Camp, December 18, 1909, folder 11, box 1, Camp Papers, BYU.

21. See Tilton to Surgeon General, October 26, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General; and Miles, Personal Recollections, 274. Most non-Indian accounts mentioned that Looking Glass had been killed by the time of the Joseph-Miles meeting October 1, and Yellow Wolf's account seems to concur. Yellow Wolf confusedly stated that Looking Glass was killed on the "third sun of battle," preceding the first meeting with Miles, which was actually on the second day of the fighting. See McWhorter, Yellow Wolf, 213-14. Other Nez Perce sources indicate that he was killed on the day of the surrender. See McWhorter, Hear Me, 495; and MacDonald, "Nez Perces," 271. Yet the tight chronology of the existing cease-fire, Joseph's message (in which the death of Looking Glass is mentioned), and the capitulationall on the morning of October 5 (see below)does not favor the latter view. McWhorter, on the basis of an opinion of former teamster Charles A. Smith, stated that Scout Milan Tripp fired the shot that struck Looking Glass in the left forehead. Another view is that he was killed by a shell from the twelve-pounder. McWhorter, Yellow Wolf, 214 n. 2. McWhorter's informants pointed out the spot where Looking Glass died at the lower end of the ridge occupied by Hale's battalion of cavalry. C. Raymond Noyes, plat, "Battle of the Bear's Paw," NA. The spot was marked by a shaft in 1928.

22. Miles, Personal Recollections, 274. Yellow Wolf concurred that "some guns were given up." McWhorter, Yellow Wolf, 215. See also U.S. Senate, Memorial of the Nez Perce, 32. Another account stated that Joseph "proposed to close the engagement by surrendering the arms he had taken from the dead soldiers." Charles K. Bucknam and G. H. Snow account in New York Herald, October 11, 1877.

23. Long to Miles, August 16, 1890, Long Papers.

24. Hill recollection in Curtis, North American Indian, 8:171.

25. McWhorter, Hear Me, 488. "During a truce, it is dishonorable to . . . resort to any act which would confer advantage." Wilhelm, Military Dictionary and Gazetteer, 602.

26. For the formalities and historically recognized rules pertaining to armistices, see Rules for Land Warfare, 88-96.

27. Jerome was the son of prominent financier and businessman Lawrence R. Jerome of New York City, friend to powerful politicians and newspaper publishers during the Gilded Age. He was also the nephew of Leonard W. Jerome, the so-called "King of Wall Street," whose daughter, Jennie, became the mother of Winston Churchill. His younger brother was William Travers Jerome, who became district attorney of New York City. For more background, see Davies, Ten Days on the Plains, 135-39; Winners of the West, February 28, 1935; and Stearns, "Volunteer Hostage," 87-89.

28. The matter of whether Jerome acted on his own volition or in response to a request from Miles remains a matter of some controversy. In his report, Miles stated that Jerome was directed "to ascertain what was being done in the Indian village." Miles, "Report," 528. However, Miles later stated that "I directed Lieutenant Jerome to ascertain what the Indians were doing in the village, supposing that he would go to the edge of the bluff and look down into the camp. Misunderstanding my instructions, he went down into the ravine, he was seized and held until he was exchanged for Chief Joseph." Miles, Personal Recollections, 274. However, Lieutenant Long wrote Miles in 1890: "When you thought it might be advisable for some officer to enter the camp then under the protection of flag of truce, I volunteered to go . . . [but] . . . you thought best for Jerome to perform this work." Long to Miles, August 16, 1890, Long Papers.

29. Charles K. Bucknam and G. H. Snow account in New York Herald, October 11, 1877.

30. McWhorter, Yellow Wolf, 215.

31. "Capture of the Nez Perces, Young Two Moon's Account."

32. McWhorter, Yellow Wolf, 215-16.

33. Jerome's account in New York Herald, October 30, 1877. In Jerome, "Jerome's Own Story," Jerome gave an account (first published in the Otsego Journal, July 17, 1930, and later in Winners of the West, April 30, 1935) that is often cited in describing the event. It originated in an interview conducted by Robert Bruce at Jerome's New York City apartment in 1930. In it he claimed to have initiated contact with Joseph leading to the meeting with Miles and even accompanied the leader back to his camp to explain the proposed surrender. After Joseph returned to Miles with "20 or 30 guns he had collected," the two enjoyed coffee while Jerome returned to the camp on Miles's order "to see that they don't cache any of their guns." Jerome, "Jerome's Own Story," 337-38. There is indeed some basis for believing that Jerome entered the camp twice, the first time volunteering to assist in the retrieval of some arms and the second in response to Miles's request for information. Years later, seeking a Medal of Honor, he wrote Miles: "The first time I went into the Indian camp I volunteered, or asked permission. The second time when I was detained and held prisoner I went in by your order." Jerome to Miles, April 1, 1898, in Jerome, Appointment, Commission, and Personal File. An article in the Fort Benton Record, October 12, 1877, stated that Jerome had entered the camp twice. And Lieutenant McClernand, writing of the event that involved his fellow officer of the Second Cavalry, observed the following: "Jerome was sent into the village to see if Chief Looking Glass was killed, as reported, and perhaps to observe generally. He went and returned all right, but not satisfied with having accomplished all he was instructed to do, he let his curiosity lead him back again." Edward J. McClernand, With the Indian, 106.

34. Jerome account in New York Herald, October 30, 1877. In his 1930 memoir, Jerome stated that "my food was brought from our camp by an orderly." It is extremely doubtful that this happened and is probably an elaboration by the aged Jerome. Jerome, "Jerome's Own Story," 338.

35. See, for example, Edward J. McClernand, With the Indian, 107. Lieutenant Wood, Howard's aide, who was not yet present, declared that Miles "was furious. He swore at Lt. Jerome, saying that now he would be compelled to return Joseph to his camp." Wood to Harry S. Howard, February 20, 1942, folder 34, McWhorter Papers.

36. Thomas M. Woodruff, Letter.

37. Snyder, "Diary," October 1, 1877.

38. Memorandum containing Brigadier General John F. Weston recollection, September 22, 1900, in Jerome, Appointment, Commission, and Personal File.

39. Army and Navy Journal, November 24, 1877. That Jerome was in no way reprimanded suggests that Miles may have apprehended certain political fallout from among the powerful Jerome family's associates and supporters.

40. McWhorter, Yellow Wolf, 217. See also McWhorter, Hear Me, 489-90.

41. McWhorter, Yellow Wolf, 217. McWhorter cited an account of Wottolen that said that Joseph's hands were cuffed behind him and his feet drawn up behind him and tied to the cuffs. McWhorter, Yellow Wolf, 217 n. 6. Tom Hill likewise said that Joseph, on his return, told the people that he had been tied up and hobbled. U.S. Senate, Memorial of the Nez Perce.

42. Joseph [Heinmot Tooyalakekt], "An Indian's Views," 429. The former Lieutenant Wood, on learning of Yellow Wolf's statements, responded that "the account that General Miles hobbled Joseph and held him corralled with the mules . . . is absolutely rot without any slightest foundation whatever." Wood to Harry S. Howard, folder 34, McWhorter Papers, February 20, 1942. And Miles himself denied that Joseph was handcuffed, though he allowed that he had been guarded closely. See Curtis, North American Indian, 8:172 n. 1. Private Barker recalled that Joseph was kept in a tent with a bed and darkened lantern. "An infantryman sat on a camp stool with fixed bayonet," while two cavalrymen stood guard outside. Barker, "Campaign and Capture," (January 1923): 30.

43. McWhorter, Yellow Wolf, 218; "Memoranda of Active Service . . . Maus"; Maus to Adjutant General, August 29, 1890, box 2, Halstead-Maus Family Papers; Havre Plaindealer, August 23, 1902; and Maus to Camp, February 20, 1914, folder 1, box 2, Camp Papers, BYU. Young Two Moon maintained that the Cheyenne scouts completed the exchange at Miles's direction. "Capture of the Nez Perces, Young Two Moon's Account."

44. Jerome's account in New York Herald, October 30, 1877. The fact that Joseph had been dealing with Miles led to a story that, to protect himself against warriors prone to picking off officers and senior noncommissioned officers, Miles promptly shaved off his mustache to change his appearance (see Kipp, Interview). Jerome termed the imputation "rot." Jerome, "Inquiries." Denied a brevet promotion for his service under Miles at the Lame Deer Fight and at Bear's Paw (legally, because of his circumstances, Jerome was then neither an active duty officer nor on the retired list), Jerome in 1898 began a campaign to receive a Medal of Honor. Miles, again perhaps politically conscious, recommended the medal, but ultimately Jerome's direct application to President Theodore Roosevelt (who detested Miles) was denied. "The medal . . . can not be awarded to you for participation in the [May 1877] charge on Lame Deer's camp, because there is nothing to show that you distinguished yourself . . . , and the medal cannot be awarded to you on account of your visit to Chief Joseph's camp, because the official record shows that you made that visit while Chief Joseph was in Colonel Miles' camp, thus giving reasonable assurance that you would not be harmed." Jerome, Appointment, Commission, and Personal File.

45. Tilton to Surgeon General, October 26, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General. See also Zimmer, Frontier Soldier, 127.

46. The plan to break out is mentioned in McWhorter, Yellow Wolf, 218-19. Hill's recollection is in Curtis, North American Indian, 8:172.

47. Roy to Camp, August 13, 1911, folder 19, box 1, Camp Papers, BYU. See also Tilton to Medical Director, Department of Dakota, October 3, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General.

48. Tilton to Surgeon General, October 26, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General.

49. For the arrival of the train, see Kelly, "Yellowstone Kelly," 196-97; Tilton to Surgeon General, October 26, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General; and Romeyn, "Capture of Chief Joseph," 289-90. Particulars of the advance of the wagon train by a member of its escort are in Barker, "Campaign and Capture," (January 1923): 7.

50. The dead man was Private John Irving, Company G, Second Cavalry; the wounded man was Private Charles Smith, Company K, Seventh Cavalry. Tilton to Medical Director, Department of Dakota, October 3, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General.

51. Roy to Camp, December 18, 1909, folder 11, box 1, Camp Papers, BYU.

52. Roy to Camp, August 13, 1911, folder 19, box 1, Camp Papers, BYU.

53. Edward J. McClernand, With the Indian, 107. Captain Snyder described the night as "one of the most disagreeable I ever spent." Snyder, "Diary," October 2, 1877.

54. Tilton to Surgeon General, October 26, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General.

55. Snyder, "Diary," October 1, 1877; Edward G. McClernand, Letter.

56. Barker, "Campaign and Capture," (February 1923): 7; and Edward G. McClernand, Letter. The dead man was Trooper Irving, as cited in note 50 above.

57. Roy to Camp, December 18, 1909, folder 11, box 1, Camp Papers, BYU.

58. Charles K. Bucknam and G. H. Snow account in New York Herald, October 11, 1877. The account is not clear as to which day this incident happened. In what was perhaps a typical overstatement by an enlisted man, Private John McAlpine recalled of his time on the line that "I never saw an officer for the whole five days of the battle. They stayed in the rear with the grub and hot coffee." McAlpine, "Memoirs."

59. Zimmer, Frontier Soldier, 127.

60. Edward G. McClernand, Letter. Private Zimmer, of Company H, Second Cavalry, wrote: "Our battalion got relieved off of the skirmish line this evening." Zimmer, Frontier Soldier, 126. It is not clear whether the Napoleon gun fired a round at the Nez Perces' position at dusk on the second. In Edward J. McClernand, With the Indian, 107, McClernand stated that it did, but on "the evening of the 6th day," somehow confusing his chronology. In Edward G. McClernand, Letter, McClernand said only that the gun was pointed to command the place where the Nez Perces obtained water.

61. Zimmer, Frontier Soldier, 127.

62. Author's field notes, August 27, 1995.

63. Long, "Journal of the Marches," 1701; and Kipp, Interview.

64. Joseph [Heinmot Tooyalakekt], "An Indian's Views," 429. A Nee-Me-Poo account of Peyanahalkpowwit noted that the council of leaders believed that, since Miles ignorantly recognized Joseph as chief of all the people, he should continue talking as a means of delaying. But if he indeed wanted to surrender, he was talking only for himself. Pinkham, Hundredth Anniversary of the Nez Perce War.

65. Tilton to Surgeon General, October 26, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General.

66. It is clear that a deadline had been established. Woodruff stated that "the Indians had raised a flag of truce on the morning of the 1st and had kept it up, but we sent word to them that if they did not surrender by 10:30 (the 3rd) we should open fire on them, and we did, for they were not inclined to accept our terms." Thomas M. Woodruff, Letter. Snyder remarked that "the Indians not coming to terms, [we] opened fire upon them about noon." Snyder, "Diary," October 3, 1877.

67. Ripley, Artillery and Ammunition, 26-29; and Aubrey L. Haines to Jack Williams, January 18, 1962, copy in the research files, Big Hole National Monument, Wisdom, Mont. For use of the twelve-pounder at Wolf Mountains, see Greene, Yellowstone Command, 166-76. Inexplicably, there is little mention in any of the accounts of the activity, much less the performance, of the Hotchkiss gun at Bear's Paw, beyond the fact that it was present throughout the encounter stationed on the point adjacent to the south bluff. However, fragments of its projectiles have been found on the battlefield, bearing witness to its use during the siege.

68. Army and Navy Journal, December 8, 1877; Baird, "Capture of Chief Joseph," 213; and Baird, "General Miles's Indian Campaigns," 364.

69. Tilton to Surgeon General, October 26, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General. One report stated that the flag of truce above the Nez Perce position "was cut down by a single shot from the French breechloader." Fort Benton Record, October 12, 1877. Young Two Moon said that "General Miles told the Nez Perces that unless they surrendered this afternoon the soldiers would fire at them. The sign would be by bugle calls. After a time the troops did fire on the Nez Perces and the firing did not cease until sundown." "Capture of the Nez Perces, Young Two Moon's Account." However, the relative chronology of both of the above references to the events of the siege is unclear.

70. Romeyn, "Capture of Chief Joseph," 290. Romeyn's chronology for the opening of the twelve-pounder is in error; he said October 2, but he meant the third, which is specified in the other accounts. Furthermore, Romeyn indicated that the gun was repositioned on the morning of October 4 (he meant the fifth), which was probably not correct, as there is no further evidence that the twelve-pounder was relocated after it opened fire directly on the noncombatant-occupied coulee on October 3. Romeyn's chronology is off one day beginning with his entry for October 2 on page 290.

71. Tilton to Surgeon General, October 26, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General.

72. Butte Miner, May 26, 1925.

73. Snyder, "Diary," October 3, 1877.

74. Zimmer, Frontier Soldier, 127.

75. Copy in New York Herald, October 8, 1877; and Army and Navy Journal, October 13, 1877.

76. Miles to Mary Miles, October 3, 1877, quoted in Virginia Johnson, Unregimented General, 203. The courier who took the dispatches to Fort Benton was Charles Bucknam, who had earlier joined the command from Major Ilges. Helena Weekly Independent, October 11, 1877.

77. Tilton to Medical Director, Department of Dakota, October 3, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General.

78. Tilton to Surgeon General, October 26, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General.

79. McWhorter, Yellow Wolf, 220; and McWhorter, Hear Me, 495.

80. Zimmer, Frontier Soldier, 127.

81. Barker, "Campaign and Capture," (January 1923): 30; and Circular, Headquarters, District of the Yellowstone, October 4, 1877, entry 903, part 3, General Orders and Circulars, Sept. 1877-June 1881, District of the Yellowstone, U.S. Army Continental Commands.

82. Miles, "Report," 528-29; Howard to Sheridan, October 19, 1877, in Secretary of War, Report . . . 1877, 76; Tilton to Surgeon General, October 26, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General; Snyder, "Diary," October 4, 1877; and Portland Daily Standard, November 4, 1877.

83. Redington, "Scouting in Montana," 63. Redington reported finding the body of "a colored courier," dead about two hours with his dispatches torn up and scattered about along with a box of cigars.

84. Benteen to wife, October 2, 1877, in Carroll, Camp Talk, 92, 94. Sturgis forwarded a congratulatory message to Miles. "I will begin crossing the troops at once to march toward you as rapidly as our jaded animals will permit." He also sent orders to the troops at Cow Island to move out immediately. Sturgis's cavalry crossed at Carroll, while the infantry and artillery troops and their wagons ascended to Little Rocky Creek, there to move over a shorter distance and rejoin Sturgis near the Little Rocky Mountains. Sturgis to Miles, October 2, 1877, entry 107, box 3, part 3, 1877, U.S. Army Continental Commands. See also Sturgis to Miles, October 4, 1877, ibid.

85. Sturgis to Miles, October 4, 1877, entry 107, box 3, part 3, 1877, U.S. Army Continental Commands

86. Howard, "Report," 629-30; Mason to wife, October 2 and 3, 1877, in Davison, "A Century Ago," 18; Hardin, Diary, October 2, 1877; Howard, My Life and Experiences, 298-99; and John Carpenter, Sword and Olive Branch, 259-60. Howard had not received any of Miles's dispatches and, according to Wood, was worried that Miles might have been wiped out. C. E. S. Wood, "Indian Epic is Re-Told."

87. Lieutenant Wood, who was present at this meeting in Howard's tent, said years later that Howard told Miles: "'I have not come to rob you of any credit. I know you are after a star, and I shall stand back and let you receive the surrender, which I am sure will take place tomorrow.' When Miles left the tent, I told General Howard I thought he made a mistake. . . . He laid his one hand on my shoulder and said: 'Wood, Miles was my aide-de-camp in the Civil War. . . . I got him his first command. I trust him as I would trust you.'" C. E. S. Wood, "Indian Epic is Re-Told." See also John Carpenter, "General Howard," 112. Miles told his wife that Howard "did not assume command or give any directions. He had really nothing to do but witness the completion of the work. I was very glad to have him come up as he has been so badly abused that I am willing to give him any help or share any credit with him." Miles to Mary Miles, October 14, 1877, quoted in Virginia Johnson, Unregimented General, 207. On the other hand, interpreter Arthur ("Ad") Chapman said that he was also present and that Howard proposed assuming command, reportedly saying: "'When two commands join the ranking officer takes command of both.' Miles replied: 'Where is your command,' and Howard said, 'I have my staff here.' Miles said, 'Your staff is not your command.'" Chapman, Interview, 138. This story was relayed to Walter Camp by "Ad" Chapman's brother Winfield in 1913, six years after "Ad" Chapman's death.

88. Wood to Mason, October 4, 1877, entry 897, box 1, part 3, 1877, U.S. Army Continental Commands; and Mason to wife, October 6, 1877, in Davison, "A Century Ago," 18.

89. McWhorter, Hear Me, 493; and McWhorter, Yellow Wolf, 222 n. 3.

90. Quoted in Portland Daily Oregonian, October 19, 1877. See also John Carpenter, "General Howard," 142. The meeting is discussed in Howard, "Report," 630; and Howard, My Life and Experiences, 299. Lieutenant Wood remembered that the two Nez Perces were brought along "as witnesses to the proximity of his [Howard's] entire force and as possible negotiators." Wood, draft of letter account to Edward D. Lyman, January 17, 1939, C. E. S. Wood Collection. (This letter is reprinted in Erskine Wood, Charles Erskine Scott Wood, 16-20.)

91. Tilton to Surgeon General, October 26, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General. Zimmer said: "It froze very hard last night, but the sun came out bright & warm this morning." Zimmer, Frontier Soldier, 128.

92. Tilton to Surgeon General, October 26, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General.

93. Guy Howard to Sturgis, October 5, 1877, Letters Sent, Department of the Columbia, U.S. Army Continental Commands, quoted in John Carpenter, "General Howard," 142; and Sturgis to Miles, October 2, 1877, entry 107, box 3, part 3, 1877, U.S. Army Continental Commands.

94. Snyder, "Diary," October 5, 1877. Zimmer, Frontier Soldier, 128, carried this notation: "Last night our men crawled up on the Indian works, within 50 yards, & dug pits under the shelter of the darkness & a heavy fire from our men. As soon as it was dawn our boys began to pour lead into their pits and by ten a.m. they squealed. White rags could be seen in all directions in their camp."

95. Snyder, "Diary," October 5, 1877; U.S. Senate, Memorial of the Nez Perce; and Tilton to Surgeon General, October 26, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General. Howard stated that "we did not have very long to wait" for the two Nez Perces to return. Howard, My Life and Experiences, 299.

96. Probably in reference to the shelling of the preceding day.

97. Tilton to Surgeon General, October 26, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General.

98. Joseph [Heinmot Tooyalakekt], "An Indian's Views," 429.

99. This time is speculative, based on documentation of the approximate time of succeeding events. Sutherland, who probably heard of the proceedings from Lieutenant Wood, gave the time that Captain John and Old George went over as "about 11 o'clock," in Portland Daily Standard, November 4, 1877.

100. McWhorter, Yellow Wolf, 222-23; McWhorter, Hear Me, 493-94; Hill recollection in Curtis, North American Indian, 8:172; and U.S. Senate, Memorial of the Nez Perce. McWhorter stated that some Nez Perces believed they would be returned to the Wallowa and Imnaha valleys, but most realized that Lapwai was meant. McWhorter, Hear Me, 494. On this point, Wood maintained that while in strictest terms the imminent surrender was considered "unconditional," in actuality, based on McDowell's telegram to Adjutant General, September 1, 1877, respecting the return of the people to the Department of the Columbia, and that expectation being common knowledge among the command, the scouts probably relayed it on to Joseph and other Nez Perces in the camp. Wood to L. V. McWhorter, March 17, 1929, folder 25, McWhorter Papers. Miles was more definite, however, stating (probably after consultation with Howard) that "I acted on what I supposed was the original design of the government to place these Indians on their own reservation, and so informed them. . . . [I told them] that they would be taken to Tongue River [Cantonment] and retained for a time, and sent across the mountains as soon as the weather permitted in the spring." Miles, "Report," 529. Wood also said that the Nez Perces were told they would not be tried or executed for past transgressions. C. E. S. Wood, "Pursuit and Capture," 328.

101. McWhorter, Yellow Wolf, 224.

102. McWhorter, Hear Me, 494.

103. Hill recollection in Curtis, North American Indian, 8:172.

104. The roles of Captain John and Old George in concluding the surrender cannot be overstated. In 1939, Howard's former aide, Lieutenant Wood, recollected their work in considerable detail: "Myself . . . , Lieutenant Guy Howard, the General's son, . . . Arthur Chapman, as interpreter, Old George and Capt. John as messengers, also Lieutenant Oscar Long, Col. Miles' Adjutant, and a Cavalryman, dismounted and standing at his horse's head a little apart, were out on a bare knoll, or rolling hill, one slope of which led down to the creek and valley. . . . Nobody was allowed to come on the outpost knoll where we stood. Presently, General Howard and Col. Miles came to where we were, walking slowly and talking as they came. When the[y] arrived where we were, and after we had made the formal salutes, which the two senior officers acknowledged, they went to one side, somewhat away from us and began talking. They then called Chapman and gave him instructions what to say to Old George and Capt. John and these two messengers started down the slope to Joseph's camp. They remained a long time, at least an hour, and we were walking around to keep warm and to break the monotony. Presently the two old Indians came up the slope and Chapman walked over and stood by Gen. Howard and Col. Miles who had also been walking about talking. What message the Indians brought no one ever knew but Gen. Howard, Col. Miles, Arthur Chapman, Old George and Capt. John. After a fairly short consultation, the two old Indian messengers were sent back. . . . I wish to emphasize that the negotiations between Joseph's camp and General Howard with Col. Miles on the hilltop were carried on entirely by Old George and Capt. John, always as a couple, going back and forth, bringing messages to Howard and Miles which no one heard but Howard, Miles and Chapman, the interpreter, and taking replies which also no one heard but these three. So the day progressed." Wood, draft of letter account to Lyman, January 17, 1939, C. E. S. Wood Collection.

105. Howard indicated in his report that "Joseph sent the following reply," which constituted his "speech." Howard, "Report," 630. Captain John was identified by Lieutenant Wood as the speaker in Harper's Weekly, November 17, 1877. Major Mason (not present, but a confidante to Howard) later reported that Joseph's statement was given to Captain John in response to Howard's offer of "good terms." Omaha Herald, March 15, 1883. For succinct background studies on Wood (1852-1944), see "Men and Women"; and, especially, Bingham, Charles Erskine Scott Wood. Regarding the "speech," Wood later claimed that "no one was interested to take it. Oscar Long, Miles['s] adjutant, was there to take it down but did not. No one was told to take it down. I was not told. The speeches of Indians were not considered important. I took it for my own benefit as a literary item." Park City Park Record, March 16, 1944.

106. This is the version of the statement "taken verbatim on the spot" by Wood and subsequently published in Harper's Weekly, November 17, 1877, and in Howard, "Supplementary Report," 630. The earliest published version of the statement appeared in the Bismarck Tri-Weekly Tribune, October 26, 1877, with slight variations from that published in Howard's report. Notably, the Tribune version spelled the chief's name "Ta-hool-hool-shoot," and it contained the following differences: "he who leads the young men," "may be freezing to death," and "I want time to look for my children." (Four other and slightly different renderings by Wood of the address are in, respectively, C. E. S. Wood, "Chief Joseph, the Nez-Perce," 141, (1884); Wood to Moorfield Storey, May 27, 1895, published in Oregon Inn-Side News, 1 (November-December, 1947), 5-6, copy in the C. E. S. Wood Collection; C. E. S. Wood, "Pursuit and Capture," 330, (ca. 1935); and Wood to C. J. Brosnan, January 7, 1918, p. 236, in The Bookmark, a ca. 1940 publication of the University of Idaho Library, Brosnan Collection. In 1939, after considerable reflection, Wood revised the last line of Joseph's "speech" to: "Joseph will fight no more forever." Wood, draft of letter account to Lyman, January 17, 1939, C. E. S. Wood Collection. The original penciled note was turned over to the War Department and subsequently lost, according to Wood in C. E. S. Wood, "Pursuit and Capture," 331. His wife insinuated that Miles had there destroyed it. Sara Bard Field to McWhorter, July 2, 1935, folder 35, McWhorter Papers. For analysis and discussion of the four variations of the speech purported to have originated with Wood, see Aoki, Nez Perce Texts, 120-23 (a fifth with minor punctuation differences is in C. E. S. Wood, "Famous Indians," 439); and Aoki, "Chief Joseph's Words." Aoki concluded that the "speech" was indeed a message that was likely embellished upon by Wood, who had literary interests (and became a leading writer during the early twentieth century) and, as such, does not exemplify American Indian oratory. Aoki also believed that the reminiscence of Yellow Wolf regarding the discussion preceding the surrender signified that the Nez Perces believed they were agreeing to only a cease-fire. Aoki, "Chief Joseph's Words," 20-21. Given the condition of the people, this was unlikely; besides, technically, a truce was already in place. For various Nee-Me-Poo language translations from English, see Aoki, Nez Perce Texts, 123-25; John Thomas to Camp, April 15, 1912, item 27, Ellison Collection; Camp Manuscript Field Notes, Nez Perce Indian Wars 1, 141, Camp Papers, LBNM; and notes by Starr J. Maxwell and Samuel Morris of Lapwai, January 20, 1913, ibid., 147. See also Mark Brown, "Joseph Myth," 14-17.

107. Kelly, "Capture of Nez Perces."

108. Joseph [Heinmot Tooyalakekt], "An Indian's Views," 429. Joseph added: "General Miles had promised that we might return to our own country with what stock we had left. I thought we could start again."

109. Howard, "Report," 630.

110. McWhorter, Yellow Wolf, 224-26; McWhorter, Hear Me, 496; and Hill recollection in Curtis, North American Indian, 8:172. This time is given in Thomas M. Woodruff, Letter. Miles wrote his wife that Chief Joseph surrendered "this morning." Miles to Mary Miles, October 5, 1877, quoted in Virginia Johnson, Unregimented General, 206. However, in his somewhat unreliable Miles, Personal Recollections, 275, Miles stated that Joseph surrendered at 10:00 a.m., but described the formal surrender, which occurred later, as depicted below. Afterwards, there was talk that Joseph had asked for and received help from a force of soldiers in searching for his lost daughter. Cheyenne Daily Leader, December 6, 1877. She, in fact, had escaped before the initial battle on the thirtieth and had reached Canada.

111. C. E. S. Wood, "Chief Joseph, the Nez-Perce," 142. In later years, Wood variously remembered that Joseph's hair was braided on either side of his face and tied with fur, that he wore a woolen shirteither gray or army blue, he thoughta blanket, probably gray with a black stripe, and buckskin moccasins and fringed leggings. Wood to McWhorter, January 31, 1936, quoted in McWhorter, Hear Me, 498; Wood, draft of letter account to Lyman, January 17, 1939, C. E. S. Wood Collection; and Park City Park Record, March 16, 1944. In Harper's Weekly, November 17, 1877, Wood reported that Joseph's clothes bore so many bullet holes that "Colonel Miles begged his shirt as a curiosity."

112. Author's field notes, August 27, 1995.

113. Wood, in Harper's Weekly, November 17, 1877, stated that the party came "up the hill," a reference repeated in C. E. S. Wood, "Chief Joseph, the Nez-Perce," 141. In 1895, Wood repeated his view that "Joseph came up to the crest of the hill, upon which stood Gen. Howard, Gen. Miles, an interpreter [Chapman] and myself." Wood to Storey, May 27, 1895, published in Oregon Inn-Side News, 1 (November-December, 1947), 5-6, copy in the C. E. S. Wood Collection. In C. E. S. Wood, "Pursuit and Capture," ca. 1935, Wood said that the Nez Perces "came from the ravine below, up to the knoll on which we were standing" (329). See also the repeated references to the site in Wood, draft of letter account to Lyman, January 17, 1939, C. E. S. Wood Collection. And in a letter written decades after the event to Howard's son, Wood said that Joseph's party "approached us on the little hill." Wood to Howard, February 20, 1942, folder 34, McWhorter Papers. This site is at variance with that advanced by McWhorter in the 1930s, based upon the statements of Charles A. Smith, who had been a teamster with Miles in 1877. "He came out to the field, and I had him point out the location of the formality of surender [sic], as he remembered." McWhorter to Joseph G. Masters, October 27, 1936, Masters Papers. McWhorter wrote to Wood about this new information, and Wood responded that he thought the site was "on higher ground." Nonetheless, McWhorter wrote Smith that "I had a talk with my Noyes, and he agreed that the location decided on by you should be marked on the map and promised me that he would so make it, as designated by you." McWhorter to Smith, November 8, 1935, folder 61, McWhorter Papers. (See also C. Raymond Noyes, plat, "Battle of the Bear's Paw," NA.) The next day, McWhorter wrote Smith that "I now have absolute proof that you are correct in the location of Col. Miles [sic] Headquarters being located up that 'draw' or canyon, at the mouth of which you pointed out where the surrender took place." McWhorter to Smith, November 9, 1935, folder 3, McWhorter Papers. McWhorter did not state the nature of his "absolute proof." Yet this site seems illogical from a military standpoint; besides being at variance with accounts that specifically mention Joseph riding up a hill, the fact that it was located on relatively open terrainwhere Miles and Howard would be vulnerable to Nez Perce sharpshooters beyond the enclosed perimeter of the army linewould seem to negate it as the surrender site. The correspondent for the New York Herald (October 15, 1877) noted that "Joseph entered the lines established by General Miles." This postulated surrender site may also qualify as the place where Joseph approached during the cease-fire of October 1 (see Young Two Moon, Account).

114. Wood to Mason, October 6, 1877, entry 897, box 1, part 3, 1877, U.S. Army Continental Commands. The Charles K. Bucknam and G. H. Snow account in New York Herald, October 11, 1877, stated that "at half past two in the afternoon . . . Joseph came into General Miles' camp and shook hands and proposed a surrender, which was instantly granted."

115. C. E. S. Wood, "Pursuit and Capture," 329.

116. See also Wood to Storey, May 27, 1895, published in Oregon Inn-Side News, 1 (November-December, 1947), 5-6, copy in the C. E. S. Wood Collection. The gun that Chief Joseph delivered to Miles was a brass-receivered Model 1866 Winchester .44 rimfire lever-action carbine. Its serial number of 102596 indicates an 1872 manufacturing date. The gun was donated in 1957 to the Museum of the Upper Missouri, in Fort Benton, where it reposes today. Statement of William T. Morrison; accession agreement; and exhibit text, all provided to author by John G. Lepley, February 8, 1996. For a purported Joseph surrender weapon, see Charles Phillips, "Chief Joseph's Gun."

117. The account in Portland Daily Standard, October 13, 1877, supposedly by Sutherland (apparently using information provided by Lieutenant Wood when both were subsequently on the Missouri River), and Lieutenant Guy Howard's account of the Joseph-Howard-Miles incident in the New York Herald, October 22, 1877, are in agreement as to its essentials as described above. See also Woodward, "Service of J. W. Redington" (ca. 1934); C. E. S. Wood, "Pursuit and Capture," 329; and Wood, draft of letter account to Lyman, January 17, 1939, C. E. S. Wood Collection, all of which concur. An account published earlier in the New York Herald, October 15, 1877, is the apparent source for the scenario in which Joseph spurned Howard, passing by him "in surly silence" and approaching Miles to say, "I want to surrender to you." This version of the eventpractically verbatim in some particularswas pirated by Mulford in Mulford, Fighting Indians!, 123-24, thus further compromising this book's value. While there may have been certain substance to this view of the event, there is no indication in the accounts of the primary participantsJoseph, Miles, and Howardthat such animosity existed between Joseph and Howardin fact, every indication is that only an hour or so earlier Joseph had responded favorably in referring to Howard. Chicago Inter-Ocean, October 26, 1877, editorialized: "All that clap-trap about Chief Joseph of the Nez Perces contemptuously declining to surrender to General Howard . . . is exploded [by] a dispatch to the New York Herald and other reports by officers present at the surrender." See also Army and Navy Journal, November 3, 1877. Nonetheless, the story of Joseph's repudiation of Howard at the surrender persisted. In the 1920s, two civilian employees of the army in 1877, Jack Conley and James Boyd, maintained that it happened. Conley said that "Chief Joseph reached out his gun and General Howard reached out to take it, but Chief Joseph pulled it back and handed it to General Miles. . . . We all threw our hats in the air and cheered." Butte Miner, May 26, 1925. James Boyd said of Joseph: "He had a Winchester rifle and presented arms, then handed the gun to Howard with the muzzle pointed towards the general. Howard reached out his only hand to take it and Joseph quickly withdrew it, reversed the gun and handed it stock forward to General Miles. This is just how it happened and we talked it over afterwards as to just what Joseph meant." Boyd, Interview. Samuel Tilden said it was commonly believed among the Nez Perces in Canada that "Joseph refused to give his gun to Howard but deliberately walked over and gave it to Miles," a view with which the Reverend Stephen Reuben, another Nez Perce, agreed. C. T. Stranahan to McWhorter, August 31, 1941, folder 44, McWhorter Papers. In an interview the year before his death, Joseph said in broken English of the event: "I give gun Miles. He say: 'Give gun General Howard.' I say: 'No, I give you my gun; Howard no catch me.'" Washington, D.C., Evening Star, December 12, 1903. McWhorter believed that the leaders had discussed in council who to surrender to and favored Miles because they thought that Howard would have the leaders hanged. McWhorter, Hear Me, 497 n. 10. But another prevailing view among the Nez Perces was that Howard would be more likely to take them back home than Miles would. McWhorter to Many Wounds, February 11, 1930, containing Many Wounds's responses to questions, folder 160, McWhorter Papers. See McWhorter, Hear Me, 497 n. 10, for yet further (and questionable) scenarios regarding the Joseph-Howard-Miles surrender incident.

118. Chicago Times, October 26, 1877. And in Joseph [Heinmot Tooyalakekt], "An Indian's Views," (429) Joseph stated that he said: "From where the sun now stands I will fight no more." In his 1903 interview, he stated: "I point to sun; I say: 'I fight white man no more.'" Washington, D.C., Evening Star, December 12, 1903. Baird wrote in Baird, "General Miles's Indian Campaigns" (364), and Miles wrote in Miles, Personal Recollections (275) that Joseph said: "From where the sun now stands, I fight no more against the white man." Thus, it is possible that Joseph uttered an abbreviated form of his earlier remarks. See Aoki, Nez Perce Texts, 121-22. More likely, these accounts may be among the earliest attempts to link the longer message to the formal surrender proceedings, contributing to the misconception about the delivery of the "speech" that is present today. By 1895, it seems, Wood himself had come to believe that Joseph made the speech in dramatic gesture when he turned his weapon over to Miles. "Standing back, he folded his blanket again across his chest, leaving one arm free, somewhat in the manner of a Roman senator with his toga . . . [and began to speak.]" Wood to Storey, May 27, 1895, published in Oregon Inn-Side News, 1 (November-December, 1947), 5-6, copy in the C. E. S. Wood Collection. And in 1936 Wood wrote that Joseph "stepped back, adjusted his blanket to leave his right arm free, and began his speech." Wood to McWhorter, January 31, 1936, quoted in McWhorter, Hear Me, 497-98. (See also C. E. S. Wood, "Pursuit and Capture," 330.) And as he wrote Howard's son: "Joseph swung himself down from his horse and offered his rifle to your father, and your father signed to him to give it to Miles, which Joseph did. Joseph stepped back a little and began his surrender speech, which was translated by Chapman and I took it on my paper pad." Wood to Howard, February 20, 1942, folder 34, McWhorter Papers. Scout Redington claimed to have watched the surrender. "I have always thought writers took poetic license in translating Joseph's speech. . . . I heard Joseph say something and the interpreter blah blah blah something back. That was all. I don't know what was said." Quoted in Woodward, "Service of J. W. Redington."

119. C. E. S. Wood, "Chief Joseph, the Nez Perce," 142; and Wood to Brosnan, January 7, 1918, C. E. S. Wood Collection. Wood remembered that Howard turned to him "and said, 'Mr. Wood, take charge of Chief Joseph as a prisoner of war. See that he is made comfortable and in no way is molested or troubled.' Chapman translated this to Joseph. I approached him, smiling pleasantly, a guard was designated for us and we walked together to Miles' camp where a large tent had been prepared for Joseph. I entered the tent with him and remained some time, with Chapman to interpret, trying to make Joseph feel at home, conversing with him about the outbreak of this unhappy war." Wood, draft of letter account to Lyman, January 17, 1939, C. E. S. Wood Collection.

120. Tilton to Surgeon General, October 26, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General. One report stated that Joseph, as a condition of his submission, insisted that Miles send out a force to try and find his daughter, which was agreed to. See comment of Second Lieutenant Ernest A. Garlington, Seventh Cavalry, cited in Cheyenne Daily Leader, December 6, 1877.

121. New York Herald, October 15, 1877.

122. Howard, My Life and Experiences, 299.

123. New York Herald, October 15, 1877. In addition, contemporary accounts of the surrender proceedings on which this description is based are in Harper's Weekly, November 17, 1877, which contains Wood's account (that in the Portland Daily Standard, October 13, 1877, purportedly by Sutherland, is in fact Wood's); Snyder, "Diary," October 5, 6, 1877; New York Herald, October 22, 1877; and Sutherland, Howard's Campaign, 44 (again, using information presumably acquired from Wood). Memoir accounts include Miles, Personal Recollections, 275; Miles, Serving the Republic, 178-79; Nelson A. Miles, "Chief Joseph's Surrender," New York Tribune, August 4, 1907, 6; and Howard, My Life and Experiences, 299-300; Howard, Nez Perce Joseph, 265-67; and Howard, Famous Indian Chiefs, 197-98. For the Palouses, see Trafzer and Scheureman, Chief Joseph's Allies, 23.

124. Miles, "Report," 515.

125. These figures are based on the estimate of Black Eagle, himself an escapee, who told McWhorter that 233 people140 men and boys and 93 women and girlshad managed to leave the Bear's Paw village either at the outset of the fighting, breaking away in small parties during succeeding nights, or with White Bird at the end. McWhorter, Hear Me, 499. The numbers tally well with known Nez Perce surrender and death figures in accounting for the size of the Nez Perce village.

126. White Bird's escape from Bear's Paw on the night of October 5 is documented in Zimmer, Frontier Soldier, 128; Snyder, "Diary," October 6, 1877; and Howard, "Report," 631, wherein the general stated that the chief, his 2 wives, and "about 14 warriors, crept out between the pickets and fled to British Columbia [sic]." Both the date and the number of people who left with White Bird is at issue. In one instance, Yellow Bull said that White Bird's escapees numbered 103 and left the night of September 30. Yellow Bull, Interview, LBNM. Later, however, he stated that White Bird and 50 people escaped on the night of October 2. Yellow Bull, Interview, BYU, 719. Yet Edward Lebain also said the Indians left on the night of the thirtieth. Lebain "has talked with many of the old warriors about this & they all have said it was the night of the first day." Lebain, Interview, IU. White Bird's wife, Hiyom Tiyatkehct, told Camp that during the escape "they crept out quietly. Soldiers saw them but did not fire." See Yellow Bull, Interview, BYU, 719. No Feather also went with White Bird. He said that "more than 40 people" accompanied the chief. "We slipped out at night quietly and were not fired upon by soldiers." Weptas Nut (No Feather), Interview. Duncan MacDonald's sources (who included White Bird) said that there were 103 warriors, 60 women, and 8 children. MacDonald, "Nez Perces," 271.

127. New York Herald, October 15, 1877. This account related that when a Nez Perce man volunteered to go find White Bird if Miles would provide him with a mule, the colonel "turned to General Howard, saying:'I haven't got any use for White Bird. I've got all his traps [property?], and don't think he is worth a mule.'"

128. Howard, "True Story . . . Wallowa Campaign," 63.

129. McWhorter, Yellow Wolf, 225-26.

130. Wood to Mason, October 6, 1877, entry 897, box 1, part 3, 1877, U.S. Army Continental Commands. Sturgis received the notice on October 7. Mills, Harvest of Barren Regrets, 308; and Davison, "A Century Ago," 19. Mason had joined Sturgis on October 5. On the sixth, they had marched eighteen miles and, on the seventh, had gone ten miles when news of the surrender reached them. "Mem. of Marches." On October 8, Sturgis's camp was located "at the upper end of [Little?] Peoples Creek close to the [Little Rocky] mountains." Sturgis to Miles, October 8, 1877, entry 107, box 3, part 3, 1877, U.S. Army Continental Commands.

131. Miles to Assistant Adjutant General, Department of Dakota, October 6, 1877, in Terry, "Report," 515-16.

132. "Report of Indians . . . District of the Yellowstone." This figure aligns approximately with the Nez Perces' estimate of 87 men, 184 women, and 147 childrentotal 418given in McWhorter, Hear Me, 499 and 499 n. 14. The number 418 is the same as that given by Baird, "General Miles's Indian Campaigns," 364. Howard reported that about 100 warriors and 300 women and children surrendered. Howard, "Report," 631. Dr. Tilton reported that "the total number of Nez Perces who surrendered was 405, a large number of them squaws and children." Tilton to Surgeon General, October 26, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General. Finally, Miles told a Chicago newsman that 424 Nez Perces had surrendered to himperhaps the true figure of those who came over to him at Bear's Paw. Leavenworth Daily Times, November 29, 1877.

133. New York Herald, October 15, 1877.

134. Tilton to Surgeon General, October 26, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General.

135. Long, "Journal of the Marches," 1701.

136. Circular, Headquarters, District of the Yellowstone, October 6, 1877, entry 903, part 3, U.S. Army Continental Commands.

137. Tilton to Surgeon General, October 26, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General.

138. McWhorter, Yellow Wolf, 225.

139. "Capture of the Nez Perces, Young Two Moon's Account." The scouts, in fact, may have left on the fifth. Some of them evidently joined in the search for Bear's Paw refugees in the Milk River country over the next week or two. See Zimmer, Frontier Soldier, 130.

140. Harper's Weekly, November 17, 1877.

141. Tilton to Surgeon General, October 26, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General.

142. Zimmer, Frontier Soldier, 128; and Tilton to Surgeon General, October 26, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General.

143. Tilton to Surgeon General, October 26, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General; and Grillon, "Battle of Snake Creek."

144. Zimmer, Frontier Soldier, 128.

145. Tilton to Medical Director, Department of Dakota, October 3, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General; "List of Wounded in the Yellowstone Command . . . Bears Paw Mountains"; and Miles, "Report of Col. Nelson A. Miles," October 6, 1877, in Secretary of War, Report . . . 1877, 74-75. A complete list of army casualties is in Appendix A.

146. Tilton to Surgeon General, October 26, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General. Tilton noted two cases among the wounded that seemed to have been caused by explosive bullets. "List of Wounded in the Yellowstone Command . . . Bears Paw." An illustration of an explosive bullet found in the Nez Perce camp, along with an accounting by Tilton of wounds rendered by these missiles, is in Otis and Huntington, Surgical History, 702 n. 1. Miles said of the Nez Perce warriors he fought at Bear's Paw: "They are the best marksmen I have ever met, and understand the use of improved sights and the measurement of distances; they were principally armed with Sharp's, Springfield, and Henry rifles, and used explosive bullets." Quoted in Captain Otho E. Michaelis to Adjutant General, January 22, 1879, in "Reports on Indian Arms," appendix 5, p. 323, in "Report of the Chief of Ordnance," in Secretary of War, Report . . . 1879. Explosive bullets had seen limited use during the Civil War. Each had a tiny fuse that detonated after discharge from the piece, so that a bullet would either explode in the flesh after striking a person or in the air before impact, becoming then a lethal knifelike missile. Hardy, "Explosive Bullets," 43. Evidently, the Nez Perces had confiscated a supply of these bullets from the ranch of Henry Croasdaile on Cottonwood Creek near Mount Idaho (see chapter five). There were reports that some of these bullets had been used by the warriors at the Big Hole. See Aubrey Haines, An Elusive Victory, 88.

147. Romeyn, "Capture of Chief Joseph," 291. Lieutenant Wood remarked that when he arrived with Howard on the night of October 4 "the dead soldiers were lying side by side in a long row on the prairie. . . . I have never forgotten that cordwood line of dead bodies." C. E. S. Wood, "History by One"; and Havre Plaindealer, August 16, 1902.

148. Zimmer, Frontier Soldier, 129; Havre Plaindealer, August 29, 1903; Theodore Goldin to McWhorter, June 20, 1930, McWhorter Papers; and Goldin, Biography, 331.

149. Tilton to Medical Director, Department of Dakota, October 3, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General.

150. McWhorter, Hear Me, 486; Tilton to Medical Director, Department of Dakota, October 3, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General; and Leavenworth Daily Times, November 29, 1877. Known Nez Perce casualties are listed in Appendix B.

151. Tilton to Surgeon General, October 26, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General.

152. Ibid.

153. For brevet appointments for Bear's Paw, see Heitman, Historical Register and Dictionary, 1:183, 287, 461, 657, 733, 844, 907, 1058.

154. Miles to Adjutant General, June 7, 1878, folder: campaigns against Sioux and Nez Perce, box T-2: 5th Infantry to Aug. 1887, Miles Papers, MHI.

155. Captain Godfrey in 1882 recommended that Trumpeter Herwood, who had helped save him after he had been thrown from his horse in the initial charge, be awarded a Certificate of Merit. Herwood, who was himself wounded, was discharged on a surgeon's certificate of disability and apparently never received the recommended award. Godfrey to Adjutant General, February 24, 1882, Godfrey Papers, LC.

156. Romeyn to Adjutant General, May 23, 1894, Medal of Honor, Special File. Hogan also received the medal for his performance at Cedar Creek, Montana, October 21, 1876, in the Great Sioux War. For citations of the recipients, see The Medal of Honor, 227, 231. For applications on behalf of Carter, Romeyn, and Baird, see Miles to Adjutant General, March 26 and 27, 1894, Medal of Honor, Special File. See also Beyer and Keydel, Deeds of Valor, 2:249-53. Miles also applied for a medal for Lieutenant Marion P. Maus for Bear's Paw, but Maus received a Medal of Honor in 1894 for his work in the Geronimo Campaign of 1886. Miles to Adjutant General, March 26, 1894, Medal of Honor, Special File; and Heitman, Historical Register and Dictionary, 1:698.

157. U.S. Army Gallantry and Meritorious Conduct, 94.

158. General Orders No. 3, Headquarters, District of the Yellowstone, October 7, 1877, entry 903, part 3, U.S. Army Continental Commands. Also published in Army and Navy Journal, December 8, 1877; Howard, "Report," 632; and Mulford, Fighting Indians!, 129-30.

159. Howard to Miles, October 7, 1877, folder: Nez Perce War, box 3, Sladen Family Papers. Also published in Howard, "Report" 631-32. See also C. E. S. Wood, "History by One."

160. Fort Benton Record, October 5, 12, 1877; Terry to Miles, October 5, 1877, entry 107, box 3, part 3, 1877, U.S. Army Continental Commands; Army and Navy Journal, November 24, 1877; and Bell, "Life of 'Ne-cot-ta'," 391-94.

161. Moccasin, Affidavit; Speak Thunder, Affidavit; and Miles to Mary Miles, October 14, 1877, quoted in Virginia Johnson, Unregimented General, 207. For the treatment of one Nez Perce woman captive of the Assiniboines, see Garcia, Tough Trip Through Paradise, 294-96; and Billings Gazette, August 14, 1932.

162. Alcorn and Alcorn, "Old Nez Perce Recalls," 71.

163. Yellow Bull identified the five Nez Perce scouts as Tipyilana Kapskaps (Strong Eagle), Pitpiluhin (Calf of the Leg), Tipsas (Hide Scraper), Pitomyanon Haihchaihc (White Hawk), and Wamushkaiya. Yellow Bull, Interview, BYU, 715. MacDonald stated that the Assiniboines and Gros Ventres killed seven warriors and identified one as Umtililpcown, one of those who had initiated the Salmon River murders in Idaho. MacDonald, "Nez Perces," 272. An account by Mrs. James Dorrity, who as a child was at Fort Belknap, seemingly described the same incident, but defined the group of Nez Perces as composed of two women and three men and ascribed the killings to the Gros Ventres. "Mrs. James Dorrity's Story," in Alva Noyes, In the Land of the Chinook, 81. Similarly, General Terry reported that on October 3 the Gros Ventreson Box Elder Creek"killed five men and took two women prisoners" who told the Gros Ventres of the existence of the main village in the Bear's Paws. Terry to Sturgis, October 5, 1877, entry 107, box 3, part 3, 1877, U.S. Army Continental Commands.

164. Tom Hill said that he and others "were ordered to go out in the prairie and out among the other tribes of Indians to look for Nez Perce Indians. . . . I obeyed the order and I left for good." U.S. Senate, Memorial of the Nez Perce. Supporting this contention, an enlisted man noted that some of the Nez Perces "want to hear from their people in the hills first before they surrender, so a few were let go to hold council with them, but leaving their arms." Zimmer, Frontier Soldier, 128.

165. Scott to Camp, September 2, 1913, folder 23, box 1, Camp Papers, BYU.

166. Miles to Terry, October 5, 1877, in Terry, "Report," 515; Zimmer, Frontier Soldier, 131; "Memoranda of Active Service . . . Maus"; penciled receipts, "Half Breed Camp, Milk River M.T. Oct. 13 77," and "Camp on Peoples Cr. Oct 14th 1877," entry 107, box 3, part 3, 1877, U.S. Army Continental Commands; Scott to Camp, January 18, 1914, folder 1, box 2, Camp Papers, BYU; Maus to Camp, February 2 [?], 1914, ibid.; Hugh Scott, Some Memories of a Soldier, 75-79; and unclassified envelope 110, 639, Camp Manuscript Field Notes, Camp Papers, LBNM. On crossing the battlefield, Scott viewed Looking Glass's unburied body still in the pit where he died.

167. Ilges to Miles, October 7, 1877, entry 107, box 3, part 3, 1877, U.S. Army Continental Commands. Ilges had led his citizen force on a reconnaissance along the western slopes of the Bear's Paws to Milk River at Terry's direction, intending to "pick up any small outlying parties of Nez Perces." Terry to Miles, n.d., entry 107, box 3, part 3, 1877, U.S. Army Continental Commands.

168. Tilton, "After the Nez Perces," 403.

169. Zimmer, Frontier Soldier, 129-30; Snyder, "Diary," October 7, 8, 1877; Tilton to Surgeon General, October 26, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General; Tilton, "After the Nez Perces," 403; Romeyn, "Capture of Chief Joseph," 291; Edward J. McClernand, "The Second Regiment of Cavalry, 1866-91," in Rodenbough and Haskin, Army of the United States, 189; and Fort Benton Record, October 12, 1877.

170. Howard, "Report," 632-33; Mason to wife, October 6 and 11, 1877, in Davison, "A Century Ago," 18-19; and Miles to Howard, October 10, 1877, and Howard to Miles, October 11, 1877, folder: Nez Perce War, box 3, Sladen Family Papers.

171. Mason to wife, October 13, 1877, in Davison, "A Century Ago," 19.

172. Miles to Howard, October 12, 1877, folder: Nez Perce War, box 3, Sladen Family Papers; Colonel Orlando H. Moore to Assistant Adjutant General, Department of Dakota, October 1, 1877, in Secretary of War, Report . . . 1877, 559; Regimental Returns . . . Seventh Cavalry, October 1877, roll 72; Tilton to Surgeon General, October 26, 1877, entry 624, box 1, Office of the Adjutant General; Romeyn, "Capture of Chief Joseph," 291; Mason to wife, October 13, 1877, in Davison, "A Century Ago," 19; Redington, "Scouting in Montana," 68; Snyder, "Diary," October 9-23, 1877; Tilton, "After the Nez Perces," 404; and Long, "Journal of the Marches," 1701.

173. Tilton, "After the Nez Perces," 404. Miles recalled that "as we were ferried over the band played, 'Hail to the Chief,' when suddenly they stopped and played a bar of that then familiar air, 'Not for Joe, oh no, no, not for Joseph!' etc., and then resumed the former air." Miles, Serving the Republic, 180-81. See also Miles, Personal Recollections, 278-79. This popular song, written by Arthur Lloyd, had been published in 1868 by C. H. Ditson and Company, New York City. The Cheyenne and Lakota scouts had arrived at the cantonment several days before the soldiers and prisoners and had created considerable anxiety among the families present there. Miles, Personal Recollections, 278. For the "welcome home" activities of the cantonment garrison, see Miles, Personal Recollections, 278-79; and Alice Baldwin, Memoirs of . . . Baldwin, 193-94 (reprinted in Carriker and Carriker, An Army Wife, 108-9).

174. Along these lines, the Chicago Inter-Ocean, October 19, 1877, allowed that "the captured Nez Perces Indians [sic] are a white elephant on the hands of the War Department, and it would have been a measure of economy, and saved much trouble if Chief Joseph had escaped General Miles and followed Sitting Bull into Canada."

175. See Olson, "The Nez Perce," 186, 189. For examples of pro-Nez Perces editorial coverage, see Army and Navy Journal, October 13, 1877; New York Times, October 15, 1877; The Nation, October 18, 1877; Bismarck Tri-Weekly Tribune, November 23, 1877; and especially, New York Daily Graphic, October 15, 1877, which called for "some tribute of respect . . . be paid these Nez Perce chiefs. If it is possible, in the enlargement of our regular army which must take place this winter, every one of these copper-colored leaders ought be made a second lieutenant."

176. Kelly, "Yellowstone Kelly," 205.

177. Hardin, Diary, January 17, 1878.

178. McLaughlin, My Friend the Indian, 370.

179. Havre Plaindealer, June 21, August 16, 1902, April 18, 1903, August 29, 1903. Members of the contracted exhumation detail from Havre included Fred Atkins, Wesley Lay, George Aldars, Paul Worthall, Bob Mills, Walt Shamrick, Bill Eklarse, Fred Gierall, John McCarthy, and messrs. Purcy, Harvey, and Stone (first names unknown). Photograph and information provided by James Magera, Havre. Local tradition stated that the mass grave was attended through the years by range-riding cowboys, with whom it became a custom "to make frequent pilgrimages to the trench" and add "more rocks to the growing heap atop the grave." Great Falls Tribune, December 20, 1925.

180. "Ft. Assinniboine, Mont. Reburial"; and "Record of Funeral."

181. Havre Plaindealer, August 23, 30, October 11, 1902, February 26, 1921, July 23, 1925; Havre Hill County Democrat, September 8, 1925; Great Falls Tribune, December 20, 1925; U.S. House, Marking the Site, 1-2; and U.S. Senate, Marking the Site, 1-2. For General Scott's speech on July 19, 1925, on the Bear's Paw battlefield, see Laut, Blazed Trail, 134, 144-48. For details of the land transactions concerning the battlefield, 1901-15, see Jellum, Fire in the Wind, 276-77.

182. Great Falls Tribune, September 18, 1960.

183. Edward Fredlund to McWhorter, December 5, 1932, folder 5, and McWhorter to County Surveyor, July 7, 1935, folder 28, both in McWhorter Papers. The markers were set in concrete in 1964. Great Falls Tribune, September 28, 1964; and Billings Gazette, December 19, 1965.