NATIONAL PARK SERVICE An Identification of Prairie in National Park Units in the Great Plains NPS Occasional Paper No. 7

ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION

BADLANDS
National Park
South Dakota

Badlands National Monument was authorized in 1929, but it was not established until January 25, 1939. The name was changed to Badlands National Park in 1978. The park contains unique geological formations and many different species of wildlife. It preserves the scenic and scientific values of a portion of the White River Badlands and makes them accessible for public enjoyment.

The Badlands National Park is made up of a North Unit and a South Unit which together contain a total of 243,302.2 acres (98,502.9 hectares). A total of 152,689.6 acres (61,817.6 hectares) is federal land. Approximately 70% of the park, or 171,000 acres (69,231 hectares), is classified as prairie (Figure 20). These areas are generally flat to rolling in topography.

Figure 20. Land classification map, Badlands National Park.

Kuchler Vegetation Type.: Wheatgrass—Grama—Buffalograss (Agropyron—Bouteloua—Buchloe) (Map No. 68)

A question exists in regard to the exact Kuchler Vegetation Type. National Park Service and United States Forest Service personnel surveyed portions of the park in 1983 to designate a research natural area in the Wheatgrass—Grama—Buffalograss Type. This type was not located, although the complete park was not surveyed. The sites surveyed more closely resembled the Wheatgrass—Green Needlegrass Type. The original designation might have been due to a response to drought and heavy grazing, and the Wheatgrass—Green Needlegrass Type may be more representative of normal conditions.

Present Vegetation and Prairie Management History

Due to the large size of the Badlands National Park, the prairie has been exposed to a varied management history. After European settlement, the large native herbivores were eliminated and replaced by domestic livestock. Heavy overgrazing reduced plant species diversity and plant density. These factors, along with soil compaction, caused accelerated erosion and runoff, reducing the productivity of the land. Some areas were plowed and seeded to small grains during the Homestead Era. During the 1930's Dust Bowl period, portions of the land in the North Unit were acquired by the government for restoration and reclamation. Following the establishment of the park, these lands were turned over for management by the National Park Service. Domestic livestock grazing was allowed in the park from 1942-1944 under the World War II "Beef for Victory" program.

Plant cover was restored sufficiently in the North Unit through the removal of domestic livestock, rest, and plant succession. Mule deer and antelope naturally returned to the area, while bison and bighorn sheep were reintroduced by the National Park Service. A grazing regime has been reestablished with 300 bison in the western portion of the North Unit. The eastern portion is only lightly used by deer and antelope. A major problem that has complicated the goal of grassland vegetation has been the rapid invasion of prairie dogs on sites that were previously farmed or overgrazed. Measures have been introduced to control these rodents.

All wildfires have been suppressed since the establishment of the park. The result has been that the grassland complex of the North Unit has been allowed to progress to an unknown ecological condition in relation to what it would have been under a natural fire regime. Invasion of exotic weeds has also been a problem.

Management of the South Unit of Badlands National Park is a separate program. Portions of the old Rapid City Aerial Gunnery Range were added to the park as the South Unit in 1968 for their scenic and geologic values. Agricultural use, primarily livestock grazing, is allowed and continues under the terms of the memorandum of agreement with the Oglala Sioux Tribe. Much of the vegetation in this area is not pristine. The dry years of the late 1970's and early 1980's resulted in overgrazing in some areas. Tribal regulations allow hunting by tribal members year-around with no bag limits. Hunting and grazing have resulted in low numbers of native herbivores.

Present vegetation is as varied as past management. Some areas are in excellent condition, while others are only in the beginning stages of succession. Vegetation is also related to soil type, which varies from sand to clay. At least 12 range sites are present within the park. Vegetation on the clayey soils is predominantly western wheatgrass and green needlegrass (Stipa viridula) in undisturbed areas. Buffalograss and blue grama replace these grasses with overgrazing. Continued disturbance is followed by increases in prickly pear cacti (Opuntia spp.), Japanese brome (Bromus japonicus), and little barley (Hordem pusillum). Vegetation on sandy soils in excellent condition include sand bluestem (Andropogon hallii), prairie sandreed (Calamovilfa longifolia), and little bluestem. Woody plants such as leadplant (Amorpha canescens), roses (Rosa spp.), sand cherry (Prunis besseyi), and small soapweed (Yucca glauca) are common. Overuse and disturbance will be followed by decreases in the desirable species and increases in sand dropseed (Sporobolus cryptandrus), sedges, blue grama, and western ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya).

Land Use and Vegetation Within One Mile of the Park Boundary

Vegetation immediately outside of the boundary is not different from that found within the boundary. Land use is primarily agricultural, with approximately 80% of the land being used for grazing and 20% for dryland farming.

Prairie Research

Albertson, F. W. 1953. Report of study of grassland areas of Badlands National Monument, South Dakota; Fort Robinson Military Reservation in Nebraska; North and South Units of Theodore Roosevelt National Memorial Park, North Dakota; and Wind Cave National Park, South Dakota. A Report to the NPS.

The purposes of Dr. Albertson's research were to determine the presence of unique grassland areas that would warrant preservation and to assess the grasslands from the standpoint of their importance to the economy of the overall livestock industry. He determined range sites and the density, composition and recommended carrying capacities of each site. He identified the following range sites: ordinary upland, sandy, clay, thin clay, lowland, shallow, and very shallow. Vegetation on each site was described. Basal cover, percent species composition of grasses, and carrying capacity were presented in tables. A list of forbs found in the various areas was also presented in tabular form.

Lindstrom, Lester. 1959. The flora of the Badlands National Monument of South Dakota. Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Sciences. 38:163-173.

This publication includes a list of all plants found at the park. Due to the year of the publication, the nomenclature is not up to date.

Radeke, Robert E. and Ralph S. Cole. 1969. Soils and vegetation of the Badlands National Monument. Pages 89-98. In: Natural resources basic data for Badland National Monument. James W. Larson, ed. National Park Service.

Vegetation was described in terms of range site. These researchers separated the range sites somewhat differently than did Dr. Albertson. The range sites covered were clayey overflow, sands, sandy, silty, dense clay, shallow, shallow clay, thin upland, claypan, and thin claypan. These sites are a more modern classification than was available for use by Dr. Albertson. Vegetation on each site was briefly described. Suggested starting stocking rates for bison are presented for several areas.

Stiegers, William O. 1981. Habitat use and mortality of mule deer fawns in western South Dakota. Ph.D. Thesis. Brigham Young University, Prova, Utah. 200 pages.

Dr. Stiegers included a description of the vegetation of the area in this thesis. Use of habitat by mule deer was detailed.

Agnew, William. 1983. Flora and fauna associated with prairie dog ecosystems. M.S. Thesis. Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado.

This publication includes a detailed view of the flora associated with prairie dog towns.

General References

National Park Service. 1973. Master plan. Badlands National Monument/South Dakota. 58 pages.

National Park Service. 1985. Environmental assessment. Memorandum of agreement. South Unit. Badlands National Monument/South Dakota. 61 pages.

National Park Service. 1975. Statement for management. Badlands National Monument/South Dakota. 11 pages.

National Park Service. 1976. Environmental analysis. Badlands National Monument/South Dakota. 27 pages.

National Park Service. 1981. Badlands National Park/South Dakota. A brochure. 4 pages.

BENT'S OLD FORT
National Historic Site
Colorado

Bent's Old Fort on the Arkansas River in southeastern Colorado was once the frontier hub from which American trade and influence radiated south into Mexico, west into the Great Basin (and beyond to the Pacific), and north to southern Wyoming. It was built in 1833-34 by the brothers Charles and William Bent and Ceran St. Vrain and became the most important port of call and depot between Independence, Missouri, and Santa Fe, New Mexico. The establishment of Bent's Old Fort National Historic Site was authorized on June 3, 1960.

Approximately 638 acres (258 hectares) of the 800.0 acres (323.9 hectares) of the park is in prairie or some stage of succession leading toward prairie (Figure 21). These areas are further described under the section on Present Vegetation and Prairie Management History. Federal land totals 178.0 acres (72.1 hectares), and nonfederal land totals 622.0 acres (251.8 hectares).

Figure 21. Prairie map, Bent's Old Fort National Historic Site.

Kuchler Vegetation Type: Grama—Buffalo Grass (Bouteloua—Buchloe) (Map No. 65)

Present Vegetation and Prairie Management History

The site shows the effects of cultivation and heavy grazing. All of the area near the fort was compacted and denuded by a dense population of livestock, by men, and by wagons during its historically active period. Heavy grazing and cultivation were also present after that period.

Vegetation at the Bent's Old Fort National Historic Site has been recently classified into eight types. The four types which may be considered to be prairie or potential prairie sites include: Type 1 — Cultivated fields; Type 2 — Reseeded grama grass; Type 3 — Saltgrass/Alkali sacaton meadow; and Type 8 — Old fields and pasture.

Type 1. Cultivated Fields Unit. Vegetation in this unit is in rather poor condition and the whole unit should be considered to be potential prairie. It includes approximately 50 acres (20 hectares) recently acquired along the west boundary and 15 acres (6 hectares) north of State Route 194. Cultivated lands and native vegetation are mixed within this unit. Dominants include blue grama, western wheatgrass, and sideoats grama.

Type 2. Reseeded Grama Grass Unit. This unit is composed of 30 acres (12 hectares) and is located just west and north of the fort site. A largely unsuccessful attempt was made in the 1970's to reseed this unit to blue grama and buffalograss. Poor germination and slow growth were due to inadequate moisture. Much of the area is now bare. Principal vegetation is kochia (Kochia scoparia), Russian thistle (Salsola iberica), and devil's claw (Martynia louisianica) with only a few grasses. The area is currently being grazed.

Type 3. Salt Grass/Alkali Sacaton Unit. This type is located in the meadows on the east side of the fort in the area between the highway and the river. The dominants are saltgrass (Distichlis spicata) and alkali sacaton (Sporobolus airoides). The area has been heavily grazed, and there has been a downward trend in range condition. Numerous invaders have become prominent. Type 3 makes up a total of 143 acres (58 hectares).

Type 8. Old Fields and Pasture Unit. Included in this area are approximately 400 acres (162 hectares) of the Forrest Harmon Ranch located south of the river. The natural vegetation has been highly disturbed either through cultivation or improper grazing. Portions of the area are subjected to periodic flooding and there is some encroachment of tamarisk or salt cedar (Tamarix pentandra). Native vegetation includes sideoats grama, blue grama, and western wheatgrass.

Land Use and Vegetation Within One Mile of the Park Boundary

The area surrounding Bent's Old Fort Historic Site is classified as agricultural. Some portions of the area are farmed, while others are grazing lands. Vegetation on the grazing lands is similar to that present within the boundary of the park. Vegetation along the Arkansas River is also similar to that along the river and within the park. The major species include cottonwood (Populus sargentii), willow (Salix interior), and tamarisk.

Prairie Research

No prairie research has been conducted at this location.

General References

National Park Service. 1974. Environmental impact statement. Bent's Old Fort National Historic Site/Colorado. 50 pages.

National Park Service. 1975. Final master plan. Bent's Old Fort National Historic Site/Colorado. 48 pages.

National Park Service. 1982. Management plan and environmental assessment. Bent's Old Fort National Historic Site/Colorado. 39 pages.

National Park Service. 1982. Statement for management. Bent's Old Fort National Historic Site/Colorado. 6 pages.

BIGHORN CANYON
National Recreation Area
Wyoming—Montana

Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area lies within a region of great scenic diversity, where the middle Rocky Mountains spill out onto the Great Plains. Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area in southeastern Montana and north central Wyoming encompasses 120,157.9 acres (48,646.9 hectares). It was established on October 15, 1966, in order to provide for public outdoor recreation use and enjoyment of the Bighorn Reservoir and adjacent lands. The park consists of 65,617.4 acres (26,565.8 hectares) of federal land and 54,540.4 acres (22,081.1 hectares) of nonfederal land (Figure 22). Approximately 1,560 acres (632 hectares) are classified as grassland or sagebrush/grassland.

Figure 22. Land classification map, Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area.

Kuchler Vegetation Type: A mosaic of Saltbush—Greasewood (Atriplex—Sarcobatus), Sagebrush—Steppe (Artemisia—Agropyron), Foothills Prairie (Agropyron—Festuca—Stipa), and Grama—Needlegrass—Wheatgrass (Bouteloua—Stipa—Agropyron) (Map Nos. 40, 55, 63, and 64)

Present Vegetation and Prairie Management History

The first permanent settlers came to the area around 1880. They were primarily cattlemen and often had large herds. Sheep raising first started in 1901. Most of the prairie within the boundaries was subjected to grazing, often heavy, by domestic animals until acquisition by the National Park Service. Some of the land was broken for farming in the early portion of this century. Some irrigated farmland is present in the area.

Although much of the area was overgrazed, it is possible that small remnants of relatively undisturbed prairie may remain due to the inaccessibility provided by the extreme topography surrounding Bighorn Lake. Fires have also been controlled. Condition of the vegetation of the prairies, therefore, varies greatly. Because of the wide variety of ecological zones, over 800 identified species of grasses, forbs, and woody plants have been found to date.

Grazing of domestic animals occurs in several areas. Cattle grazing the 9,815 acres (3,974 hectares) of the Dryhead Common Allotment, Carbon County, Montana (Townships 7 and 8, Ranges 28 and 29 East). Horses graze the 9,100 acres (3,684 hectares) of the Pryor Mountain Wild Horse Range, Carbon County, Montana and Big Horn County, Wyoming (Township 9, Range 28 East). Small, disjunct parcels of the Yellowtail Wildlife Habitat are intermittently grazed by cattle.

Land Use and Vegetation Within One Mile of the Park Boundary

Land use near the boundary is primarily grazing of domestic livestock. Small acreages of alfalfa, corn, and wheat are also produced near the boundaries.

Prairie Research

No prairie research has been conducted within Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area. A vascular plant inventory was recently completed as a part of the initial resources basic inventory. A preliminary vegetation map was completed in 1985.

Collins, Don D. 1968. The study of plant communities of the Big Horn National Recreation Area in relation to the impact of concentrations of people. Department of Botany and Microbiology, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana. 36 pages.

This project did not concentrate on prairie vegetation, but a grassland community and a shrub-grassland community are described. This report discusses differences in vegetation between the north and south ends. The list of species contains many prairie plants.

Patterson, Craig T. 1985. Bird and mammal inventory for the Bighorn Canyon National Recreational Area. Wyoming Cooperative Fishery and Wildlife Research Unit. Laramie, Wyoming. 84 pages.

The purpose of this study was to develop a list of birds and mammals occurring in the park and to describe habitat requirements of these species.

General References

National Park Service. 1969. Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area/Wyoming—Montana. A brochure. 2 pages.

National Park Service. 1971. Master plan. Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area/Wyoming—Montana. 51 pages.

National Park Service. 1977. Environmental analysis. Draft master plan/draft development concept plans. Volume 1. Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area/Wyoming—Montana. 187 pages.

National Park Service. 1980. Statement for management. Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area/Wyoming—Montana. 36 pages.

LITTLE BIGHORN BATTLEFIELD
formerly CUSTER BATTLEFIELD
National Monument
Montana

Custer Battlefield National Monument memorializes the Battle of the Little Big Horn, one of the last armed efforts of the Northern Plains Indians to preserve their ancestral way of life. Here, in the valley of the Little Bighorn River, several thousand Sioux and Cheyenne warriors defeated the command of Lt. Col. George A. Custer. Over 260 soldiers and attached personnel of the U.S. Army met death on June 25-26, 1876. The battlefield was designated as a National Cemetery in 1879. Several boundary changes occurred over the years until the area was redesignated as the Custer Battlefield National Monument on March 22, 1946.

Custer Battlefield National Monument is composed of two units totalling 765.3 acres (309.9 hectares) of federal land. Custer Battlefield contains 603 acres (244 hectares), and the Reno—Benteen Defense Site contains 162 acres (66 hectares). About 25 acres (10 hectares) are occupied by the National Cemetery, parking lots, roadways, and buildings. The remaining 740 acres (300 hectares) are native prairie (Figure 23).

Figure 23. Prairie map, Custer Battlefield National Monument.

Kuchler Vegetation Type: Grama—Needlegrass—Wheatgrass (Bouteloua—Stipa—Agropyron) (Map No. 64)

Present Vegetation and Prairie Management History

The prairie, as a whole, is in good to excellent condition. It is in much better condition than the surrounding ranchland. Vegetation at the Custer Battlefield Unit was heavily grazed, primarily by horses, prior to fencing in 1891. The Reno—Benteen defense site was fenced in 1954. It also was heavily grazed, primarily by cattle, before that date. No grazing by domestic livestock has been allowed since those dates. Fires are controlled as soon as possible. A wildfire burned essentially all of the prairie in the summer of 1983.

Prescribed burning was tried as a control measure for Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense) with unsuccessful results. Use of herbicides (2,4—D) was initiated in 1971 for noxious weed control. Results indicate a 70% rate of effectiveness in the Battlefield area.

Bluebunch wheatgrass makes up over 30% of the vegetation. Other important grasses include western wheatgrass, blue grama, Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis), green needlegrass, prairie junegrass, Sandberg bluegrass, and needleandthread. Prairie sandreed (Calamovilfa longifolia) is prominent on sandy soils. An overstory of big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) occurs on much of the area. Fringed sagewort is present on the sandy sites. Hawthorne (Crataegus spp.), chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), small soapweed (Yucca glauca), and greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus) are other common shrubs. Cottonwoods (Populus spp.) occur along the Little Bighorn River.

Forbs are abundant throughout the grasslands. They include wild onion (Allium textile), sego lily (Calochortis gunnisonii), deathcamas (Zygadenus venenosus), Richardson tansymustard (Descurainia richardsonii), milkvetches (Astragalus spp.), prairie clovers (Petalostemum spp.), scurfpeas (Psoralea spp.), scarlet globemallow (Sphaeralcea coccinea), plains pricklypear (Opuntia polyacantha), scarlet gaura (Gaura coccinea), common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca), Hoods phlox (Phlox hoodii), Indian paintbrush (Castilleja sessiliflora), western yarrow (Achillea millefolium), rose pussytoes (Antennaria rosea), hairy goldaster (Chrysopsis villosa), annual sunflower (Helianthus annuus), dandelion (Taraxicum officinale), and common salsifly (Tragopogon dubius).

Land Use and Vegetation Within One Mile of the Park Boundary

Land outside of the boundaries is primarily used for livestock grazing. A small portion of the valley of the Little Bighorn is farmed.

Vegetation in the surrounding grazing lands is in poorer condition than that within the park boundaries. Heavy grazing has eliminated many of the taller and more highly palatable species. Woody vegetation along the Little Bighorn River is similar inside and outside of the park boundaries.

Prairie Research

Research at the Custer Battlefield National Monument has centered on the historical aspect of the park. A partial plant species list has been assembled.

Hewitt, George B. 1983. Forage yield at five sites in Montana. Progress report for 1982. Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana.

The primary thrust of this research is a soil moisture study. Yield data from this study show forage production of 1,317 pounds per acre (1,176 kilograms per hectare) from the grasses and 522 pounds per acre (466 kilograms per hectare) from the forbs.

General References

National Park Service. 1973. Custer Battlefield National Monument/Montana. A brochure. 2 pages.

National Park Service. 1974. Draft environmental statement. Master plan. Custer Battlefield National Monument/Montana. 60 pages.

National Park Service. 1982. Statement for management. Custer Battlefield National Monument/Montana. 9 pages.

National Park Service. Undated. Resource management plan. Custer Battlefield National Monument/Montana. 17 pages.

DEVILS TOWER
National Monument
Wyoming

Devils Tower National Monument is located along the Belle Fourche River in northeast Wyoming. The tower is the core of an ancient volcano. Its name was affixed in 1875 by a scientific team escorted by Col. Richard I. Dodge. Around the tower, ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) forest and a few small stands of aspen (Populus tremuloides) merge with the prairie. Devils Tower National Monument contains 1,346.9 acres (545.3 hectares) of federal land. Of the 1,142 acres (462 hectares) within the natural environment zone, approximately 400 acres (162 hectares) are classified as prairie (Figure 24).

Figure 24. Prairie map, Devils Tower National Monument.

Kuchler Vegetation Type: A mosaic of Wheatgrass—Needlegrass (Agropyron—Stipa) and Black Hills Pine Forest (Pinus) (Map Nos. 66 and 77)

Present Vegetation and Prairie Management History

Prairie at Devils Tower National Monument is surrounded by forests. Some prairie exists under a scattering of trees. Prairie vegetation has not been subjected to use by domestic animals for many years. Wildlife have influenced prairie communities, especially within the prairie dog colony in the southeastern portion of the park.

Fire was surpressed on the monument for over 60 years. The results of fire suppression included a buildup of large quantities of litter, an increase in woody species, and a corresponding decrease in prairie species. Prescribed burning was initiated in the fall of 1974. A 28 acre (11 hectare) area directly north of the entrance station and a 30 acre (12 hectare) area between the headquarters and the prairie dog colony in the southern part of the park were burned. An additional 30 acre (12 hectare) area in the northwest portion of the park was burned in April 1982.

Visual observations indicated increased grass vigor and amounts of grass during the first growing season following the prescribed burn. Unfortunately, no quantitative measurements were made.

Leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula), an introduced forb, has become a problem weed in several areas within the park boundaries. The herbicide 2—4,D (2,4—dichlorophenoxyacetic acid) was used for control until 1973. Picloram (4—amino— 3,5,6—trichloropicolinic acid), a more effective herbicide, has been used since that time. Biological control methods, such as the spurge hawkmoth, are currently being evaluated.

Land Use and Vegetation Within One Mile of the Park Boundary

The area surrounding Devils Tower National Monument is all rangeland. These areas are grazed by domestic livestock. The Belle Fourche River borders the southern portion and flows through the southeastern portion of the park.

Prairie Research

A dendrochronology and fire history study is currently being conducted by the Laboratory of Tree Ring Research at the University of Arizona. Dr. Clifford Ferris, University of Wyoming, is currently doing an insect survey. Improved bird lists are being assembled by Audubon Society members.

Marriott, Hollis. 1982. List of plant species. Devils Tower National Monument/Wyoming. Photocopy. 11 pages.

Hollis Marriot, a Master of Science candidate at the University of Wyoming, has indexed over 400 species of vascular plants.

General References

National Park Service. 1975. Resource management plan. Devils Tower National Monument/Wyoming. 11 pages.

National Park Service. 1979. Interpretive prospectus. Devils Tower National Monument/Wyoming. 27 pages.

National Park Service. 1981. Statement for management. Devils Tower National Monument/Wyoming. 8 pages.

National Park Service. 1981. Wildflowers of Devils Tower. Devils Tower National Monument/Wyoming. 2 pages.

FORT LARAMIE
National Historic Site
Wyoming

Fort Laramie was the site of a private fur trading post from 1834-1849 and a military post from 1849-1890. It figured prominently in the covered wagon migrations to Oregon and California, in a series of Indian campaigns, and in many other pioneer events. The Fort Laramie National Historic Site was established on July 16, 1938.

Fort Laramie National Historic Site contains 856.36 acres (346.7 hectares). Federal land totals 562.8 acres (227.9 hectares) and nonfederal land totals 293.6 acres (118.9 hectares). There are approximately 604 acres (245 hectares) of natural and reestablished grassland (Figure 25). In addition, 220 acres (89 hectares) are currently being returned to grassland.

Figure 25. Prairie map, Fort Laramie National Historic Site.

Kuchler Vegetation Type: Grama—Needlegrass—Wheatgrass (Bouteloua—Stipa—Agropyron) (Map No. 64)

The park is located near the Grama—Buffalo Grass (Bouteloua—Buchloe) type. Some of the uplands closely resemble this fairly dense grassland of short grasses. Blue grama and buffalograss (Buchloe dactyloides) are the dominants in this vegetation type.

Present Vegetation and Prairie Management History

The area included within the boundaries of the Fort Laramie National Historic Site has been influenced by domestic grazing animals for nearly 150 years. Much of this grazing was excessive. By 1845, the grasslands had deteriorated to the point that animals had to be moved 3 miles (5 kilometers) from the fort to find sufficient forage. Reports show that the land in the immediate vicinity of the fort was devoid of vegetation by 1847. In the next few years, diarists describe the country around the fort as covered with prickly pear (Opuntia spp.)

Occasionally in the early 1850's, large herds of bison passed near the fort. As the grasslands continued to deteriorate, the bison ceased coming. The U. S. Army required horses and mules for transportation and cattle for food. These animals required pasture. In addition, the animals belonging to the thousands of immigrants passing through the fort added to the overgrazing problem. In an attempt to conserve some of the grasslands around the fort, an order was issued in 1852 limiting the number of animals owned by enlisted men.

Continued heavy grazing in the 1880's contributed to reduced competition from grasses, sedges, and other plants and allowed tree seedlings to become established. Cattle caused compaction of the soil, creating drier soil and exposing mineral soils. These factors combined to form an adequate seedbed for tree seedlings. Elimination of the natural prairie fires allowed the tree seedlings to grow. After acquiring the site in 1938, the National Park Service initiated a reseeding program to help prevent weed intrusion. Introduced species, such as smooth brome (Bromus inermis), were seeded. Natural succession has caused a gradual decline in these species as they are being replaced by the native plants. In general, these areas are in the mid-stages of plant succession. Grasses are probably thicker now than during the historic period. Although nearly all of the natural species are present, their relative abundance is not at historic levels and many introduced species still exist. The use of herbicides until the 1960's also had an effect on the vegetation of the area.

A revegetation program is currently being conducted on a portion of a recently acquired parcel of land. A total of 95 acres (38 hectares) was seeded over the period of 1981 to 1983. The proportions and seeding mixture was 45% western wheatgrass, 25% Indian ricegrass (Oryzopsis hymenoides), 20% green needlegrass, and 10% prairie sandreed (Calamovilfa longifolia). This mixture was applied at the rate of 10 pounds per acre (11 kilograms per hectare).

The Environmental Subzone contains approximately 40 acres (16 hectares) that have never been tilled. The vegetation on this site has not been grazed for at least 40 years. During recent years, it has been grazed only lightly. The primary management practice on this land has been to simply leave it alone.

Land Use and Vegetation Within One Mile of the Park Boundary

The area north of the Fort Laramie National Historic Site is native prairie. It is grazed by cattle and horses. Grazing land is located on the south side of the site. This area was probably restored to grassland. Alfalfa is produced on farmland west of the boundary. Farm land, planted to corn, is located directly east of the boundary.

Prairie Research

Prairie research has not been conducted on the Fort Laramie National Historic Site. A list of major grasses and forbs was compiled in 1959. The list contains 36 grasses and over 100 grasslike plants, forbs, or shrubs. John C. Fremont collected some plants in the vicinity of the site in 1842. Starting in 1868, some of the post surgeons collected plants in the area.

General References

National Park Service. 1971. Fort Laramie National Historic Site/Wyoming. A brochure. 2 pages.

National Park Service. 1972. Interpretive prospectus. Fort Laramie National Historic Site/Wyoming. 53 pages.

National Park Service. 1978. Draft environmental assessment. Fort Laramie National Historic Site/Wyoming. 39 pages.

National Park Service. 1982. Development concept plan. Fort Laramie National Historic Site/Wyoming. 41 pages.

National Park Service. 1982. Statement for management. Fort Laramie National Historic Site/Wyoming. 15 pages.

FORT UNION TRADING POST
National Historic Site
North Dakota—Montana

Fort Union Trading Post was the most important site on the upper Missouri River associated with the fur trade in western America. It had a vital impact on exploration, transportation, economics, and the exploitation of the American Indian for the period of 1829 through 1865. Its setting near the confluence of the Yellowstone and Missouri rivers has been a focal point in American history from the time of Lewis and Clark's expedition of 1804-06. The establishment of Fort Union Trading Post National Historic Site was authorized on June 20, 1966, to commemorate the significant role played by Fort Union as a fur trading post on the upper Missouri River.

Fort Union contains 436.5 acres (176.7 hectares), 121 acres (50 hectares) of which is easement. Federal land totals 392.0 acres (158.7 hectares). Prairie and potential prairie occur in three areas, totalling 175 acres (71 hectares) (Figure 26). Areas near the fort site contain approximately 35 acres (14 hectares) of grasslands. Formerly cultivated land northwest, northeast, and southeast of the fort site is being allowed to return to grassland from alfalfa (Medicago sativa). This area contains 98 acres (40 hectares). Natural grasslands are located in the 42 acre (17 hectare) Bodmer Overlook site in the northwest portion of the park.

Figure 26. Prairie map, Fort Union Trading Post National Historic Site.

Kuchler Vegetation Type: Wheatgrass—Needlegrass (Agropyron—Stipa) (Map No. 66)

Present Vegetation and Prairie Management History

The area is divided into two distinctive vegetation zones by a terrace which separates the ancient flood plain on which the fort site is located from the active flood plain of the Missouri River. Along the terrace edge and in the western portion of the active flood plain are thick growths of cottonwood (Populus deltoides), green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), chokecherry (Prunis virginiana), redosier dogwood (Cornus stolonifera), and willows (Salix spp.).

The upper terrace is not covered by water anytime during the year and contains the prairie and developing prairie. The 98 acre (40 hectare) area that was formerly in alfalfa is being allowed to undergo succession toward prairie. Numerous prairie species are returning to this area. Adjacent to and surrounding this vegetation type is a total of 35 acres (14 hectares) of mixed grass, forbs, and shrubs. Smooth broome (Bromus inermis) is abundant and will be a long-term problem. Historically, much of this area was heavily grazed. Most of this area is now hayed to preserve the historic scene, but it is not mowed each year.

The area north of the railroad, with the exception of the Bodmer Overlook and access road corridor, is maintained as a scenic easement under agricultural use. Use is limited to small grain farming and pasture. The Bodmer Overlook is maintained as native grassland. Many of the climax grasses and forbs may be found in this area. The prairie is not grazed and is in good condition.

The following eight ecologically distinct vegetation types are known from the park (a discussion follows the prairie types only):

1. Hardwood draws

2. Upland Hills — this site was the least disturbed of all sites in the area. Although some evidence of livestock grazing was found, no recent abuse has occurred. This site contains an excellent mixture of midgrasses, short grasses, and forbs. It would be characteristic of the Wheatgrass—Needlegrass vegetation type.

3. Upland Prairies — this site occurs in the lower areas of the uplands. Much of this area has been farmed. Natural dominant and subdominant plant species would be similar to those on the Upland Hills.

4. Lowland Prairies — this site is an upper terrace of the Missouri River. Nearly all of these sites have been placed in cultivation.

5. Hardwood Bottoms

6. Willow Bottomland

7. Wet Bottomland

8. Barren Sandbars

Grass fires are periodically caused by passing trains along the railroad right-of-way. These fires are easily controlled. Natural fires are controlled only to the extent necessary to protect human life, historic resources, development facilities, or as necessary to confine the fire within the park boundaries.

Land Use and Vegetation Within One Mile of the Park Boundary

Most of the area surrounding Fort Union Trading Post National Historic Site is classified as agricultural. Primary crops are wheat and alfalfa. Natural grasslands are also present and some of the area is developed as residential.

Prairie Research

Weist, Katherine M., James Lowe, Earl Willard, and Paul B. Wilson. 1980. Current and historic resources of the Fort Union Trading Post National Historic Site. University of Montana, Missoula. 128 pages.

A review of the literature was conducted to determine the natural vegetation of the area. Searches were made of the local area for relatively undisturbed sites along with relicts of natural vegetation. Few such sites were observed.

These researchers indicate that the current vegetation at Fort Union Trading Post National Historic Site is a mixture of natural plant communities and cultivated lands. Their report contains plant community descriptions, a list of exotic species, and a list of scientific and common names of plant species referenced in the report.

General References

National Park Service. 1972. Fort Union Trading Post National Historic Site/North Dakota. A brochure. 2 pages.

National Park Service. 1985. Interim interpretative prospectus. Fort Union Trading Post National Historic Site/North Dakota. 16 pages.

National Park Service. 1978. General management plan. Fort Union National Historic Site/North Dakota and Montana. 50 pages.

National Park Service. 1982. Statement for management. Fort Union Trading Post National Historic Site/North Dakota and Montana. 8 pages.

KNIFE RIVER INDIAN VILLAGES
National Historic Site
North Dakota

The Knife River Indian Villages comprise a cluster of 51 archeological sites located near the confluence of the Knife and Missouri Rivers, just north of Stanton, North Dakota. This site was occupied for centuries and possibly for several thousand years. Lewis and Clark visited the site often during their stay at nearby Fort Mandan in the winter of 1804-1805. Sakakawea lived there. The Knife River Indian Villages National Historic Site was established in 1974. Remains of earth lodges, cache pits, fortifications, and burials are present.

The Knife River Indian Villages National Historic Site contains 1,291.5 acres (522.9 hectares). Federal land totals 1,250.1 acres (506.1 hectares), and nonfederal land totals 41.7 acres (16.9 hectares). Approximately 400 acres (162 hectares) are classified as native prairies (Figure 27). An additional 350 acres (142 hectares) have been formerly cropped and are now undergoing natural succession toward prairie.

Figure 27. Prairie map, Knife River Indian Villages National Historic Site.

Kuchler Vegetation Type: Wheatgrass—Needlegrass (Agropyron—Stipa) (Map No. 66)

Present Vegetation and Prairie Management History

Prairie areas of the Knife River Indian Villages National Historic Site have been grazed by both wildlife and domestic livestock during the historical period. Thousands of individuals lived in the area from AD 1000 to 1861. Their wood gathering, farming, and grazing practices are known to have grossly impacted the vegetation. Later, during the steamship era, the park area was a wood lot that provided fuel for the ships.

Grazing was discontinued upon establishment of the park. Formerly cultivated fields are currently undergoing succession toward a climax prairie community. These areas are in the early stages of succession and are dominated by weedy grasses and forbs. Native perennial plants are scattered. The native prairie areas vary from poor to excellent in condition.

Land Use and Vegetation Within One Mile of the Park Boundary

The Knife River Indian Village National Historic Site is bordered on three sides by agricultural land. Most of this land is used to produce cultivated crops such as alfalfa (Medicago sativa) and wheat (Triticum aestivum). A few other crops are grown in the area. Some of the adjacent land is used for grazing animals. Generally, its condition is of lower quality than that of the native prairie areas within the park. The park is bounded on the south by the village of Stanton.

Prairie Research

Ms. Bonnie Heidel of the North Dakota Land Heritage Program has identified areas of undisturbed native prairies within the park boundaries.

Clambey, Gary K. 1985. Vegetation baseline study for the Knife River Indian Villages National Historic Site. North Dakota State University, Fargo. 82 pages.

This study was completed during the summer of 1984. Objectives included: (1) a floristic inventory andestablishment of a reference plant collection for use at the Site; (2) analysis of the contemporary vegetation; (3) clarification of earlier vegetation patterns; (4) consideration of current vegetation management issues and recommendation of future measures to be used. A total of 257 plant taxa were identified and voucher specimens for most of these have been deposited at the park headquarters. These include inhabitants of prairies, riparian forest, shrublands, river edge communities, and ruderal areas.

General References

National Park Service. 1978. Master plan. Knife River Indian Villages National Historic Site/North Dakota. 31 pages.

National Park Service. 1980. Assessment of alternatives. Knife River Indian Villages National Historic Site/North Dakota. 68 pages.

National Park Service. 1981. Knife River Indian Villages National Historic Site/North Dakota. A brochure. 2 pages.

National Park Service. 1981. Statement for management. Knife River Indian Villages National Historic Site/North Dakota. 6 pages.

THEODORE ROOSEVELT
National Park
North Dakota

The Badlands landscape of Theodore Roosevelt National Park presents a unique contrast to the gently rolling prairie of the Northern Great Plains. The Badlands, with its maze of canyons and coulees, interspersed with prairie uplands, was the hub of the northern open range cattle industry of the 1880's. Theodore Roosevelt was a part of this ranching industry, and the park area has been set aside as a memorial to him.

Theodore Roosevelt National Park was authorized on April 25, 1947. It contains 70,344.6 acres (28,479.6 hectares) in three units: North Unit, South Unit, and Elkhorn Unit. Federal land totals 69,975.9 acres (28,330.32 hectares). Prairies cover about 43,000 acres (17,409 hectares), or 60% of the park (Figure 28). Brush and woodlands each cover 10,000 acres (4,049 hectares), or 15% each. Approximately 7,000 acres (2,834 hectares), 10% are non-vegetated.

Figure 28. Land classification map, Theodore Roosevelt National Park.

Kuchler Vegetation Type: Wheatgrass—Needlegrass (Agropyron—Stipa) (Map No. 66)

Present Vegetation and Prairie Management History

The grasslands were heavily overgrazed in the 1880's. Following the collapse of the range cattle industry in the 1890's, some of the uplands were cultivated and planted to grain crops. Cultivation continued until the drought of the 1930's made farming impractical. Since that time, the land has been allowed to revert to its natural state. It is unknown if any of the cultivated lands were seeded back to native grasses. Some exotics, such as smooth brome (Bromus inermis), were seeded. Old field patterns are still noticeable from the air in some cases, but the scars are gradually diminishing. Nearly all associated structures and fences were removed soon after the establishment of the park.

Numerous species of animals are found in the Theodore Roosevelt National Park. Bison and elk have been reintroduced into the park. They have a significant influence on the prairie vegetation. Wild horses exist in the South Unit, and longhorn steers are maintained in the North Unit. These animals also affect the vegetation, but they are associated with the historic scene and are a part of the living history of the park. The lands are generally being managed to perpetuate an undisturbed prairie ecosystem rather than to preserve the prairie in the disturbed condition that prevailed during the Roosevelt years.

The rough topography of the area and the wide variety of soils encourage several different plant communities. These vary from the prairies on the flat and rolling areas to north slope woodlands and desert shrubs on the south facing slopes. Dominant plants of the grasslands on plateaus are western wheatgrass, blue grama, little bluestem, and needleandthread. Some prairie species occur on the south facing slopes. The understory is often composed of grasses with overstory dominants of big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata), silver sagebrush (Artemisia cana), small soapweed (Yucca glauca), greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus), and plains pricklypear (Optuntia polyacantha). Over 800 species of vascular plants have been found in the park.

Researchers have classified vegetation at the Theodore Roosevelt National Park into 11 habitat types. Habitat types provide a means of describing grassland and woodland ecosystems and relating successional stages to potential climax. The six of these habitat types that may be considered to be prairie are:

1. Stipa comata — Carex filifolia

2. Agropyron smithii — Carex filifolia

3. Schizachyrium scoparium — Carex filifolia

4. Juniperus horizontalis — Schizachyrium scoparium

5. Artemisia tridentata — Agropyron smithii

6. Artemisia cana — Agropyron smithii

Several exotic plants have increased in the park despite continued efforts to control them. Smooth brome was seeded in some areas and has spread into some of the prairie areas. Leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula) and Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense) are special concerns.

Land Use Within One Mile of the Park Boundary

Much of the land surrounding Theodore Roosevelt National Park is owned by the Federal Government and is administered by the Forest Service as the Little Missouri National Grasslands. This land is leased for cattle grazing and oil and gas development. A relatively large amount of the adjacent lands are owned by the State of North Dakota. Private lands are mainly grazed, but numerous gas and oil wells have been developed. A small amount of the privately owned land is used for small grain and hay production.

Prairie Research

Whitman, Warren C. 1936. A preliminary study of some grassland types in western North Dakota in relation to soil characteristics. A Thesis. North Dakota Agricultural College. Fargo, North Dakota. 118 pages.

This research was conducted at 26 sites centering chiefly around Sentinel Butte. Seven of the major grassland vegetation types were identified and characterized. Quantitative measurements of the vegetation were made by means of the frequency-abundance and point methods. The two main vegetation types that would be found on Theodore Roosevelt National Park are the Uplands Type and the Badlands Type. The Uplands Type occupies the nearly level to gently rolling upland plateaus and tablelands. The chief vegetation dominants are blue grama, needleandthread, and sedges. The total number of species represented in the community is fairly high and the forbs are numerous. The soil is generally a sandy loam with a well developed profile. The Badlands Type is found on the long slopes of only moderate relief. The chief vegetation dominants are blue grama, western wheatgrass, and sedges. The total number of species is low, and the forbs are few. The soil is a silty clay with a fairly well developed profile.

Ralston, Robert D. 1960. The structure and ecology of the north slope juniper stands of the Little Missouri Badlands. Master of Science Thesis. University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah. 85 pages.

This research determined the effects of fire on several shrubs. It is not directly related to prairie but it contains information about one of the vegetation types that come in contact with the prairie.

Hazlett, Donald L. 1971. An ecological study of Artemisia dominated vegetation in western North Dakota with special reference to the concept of allelopathy. Master of Arts Thesis. University of South Dakota, Vermillion, South Dakota. 42 pages.

This research was conducted entirely in the South Unit of Theodore Roosevelt National Park. The apparent randomness of silver sagebrush and big sagebrush individuals, combined with an age range of 10 to 14 years implied no significant intraspecific allelopathic inhibition for western North Dakota sagebrushes.

Sanford, Richard C. 1970. Skunk brush (Rhus trilobata Nutt.) in the North Dakota Badlands: Ecology, phytosociology, browse production, and utilization. Ph.D. Dissertation. North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota. 165 pages.

Phytosociological data on skunkbrush sumac was collected at 20 sites, all within 20 miles (32 kilometers) of Medora. Growth and phytosociological parameters from shrub and herbaceous data were significantly different between sites and slope positions (bottom, middle, and top). Grasses comprised most of the herbaceous layer, becoming less important at the top. Shrubs and forbs increased toward the top. Growth, utilization, and plant age are also discussed.

Williams, Dean E. 1976. Growth, production, and browse utilization characteristics of serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia Nutt.) in the Badlands of southwestern North Dakota. Master of Science Thesis. North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota. 110 pages.

Serviceberry was generally dominant in the shrub overstory, while the understory composition varied. Vegetative reproduction of serviceberry is accomplished mainly through root sprouting. Twig growth and yield of serviceberry are discussed. Utilization during one winter was 11% and was 15% during another winter.

Hoffman, George R. 1978. An ecologic study of the habitat types of Theodore Roosevelt National Memorial Park, North Dakota. A Report. National Park Service.

This project was started in 1978 to delimit the habitat types, list the plants, and assess the animal components of the habitat types. This is a preliminary report. The information is expanded in later reports.

Hansen, P. L., R. B. Hopkins, and G. R. Hoffman. 1980. An ecological study of Theodore Roosevelt National Park: Habitat types and their animal components. A Report. Department of Biology, University of South Dakota, Vermillion, South Dakota. 182 pages.

Ten habitat types were delimited, samples, and described. Animal components were related to these habitat types. The report contains an excellent literature cited section.

Hansen, P. L. 1977. An ecological study of the vegetation of Theodore Roosevelt National Park, North Dakota. Master of Arts Thesis. University of South Dakota, Vermillion, South Dakota. 117 pages.

The study region is described by physiography, geology, soils, and climate. Eleven habitat types are described, and a key to these types is included.

Anonymous. 1981. South Unit Loop Road photo recovery study. A Report. National Park Service. 3 pages.

In August 1978 a landslide (slumping) destroyed a section of road in the South Unit of Theodore Roosevelt National Park. This damage forced the closing of the road until August 1980. The road was rerouted. The old railroad was removed and used as the foundation for the new roadway. The remains of the old roadway were then recontoured using heavy construction equipment. The old roadway was then abandoned to allow for natural recovery. Two sites were selected for photo documentation of plant succession. Starting April 1 of each year and continuing until October 1, photographs are made of each site on alternate months.

Rogers, Deborah. 1981. A bibliography of vegetation studies pertaining to North Dakota: Draft 1. North Dakota Natural Heritage Program, Bismark, North Dakota. 21 pages.

This bibliography lists 343 articles, books, theses, and other bibliographies which contain information relevant to the vegetation of North Dakota.

Snow, Ray. 1982. A flora of Theodore Roosevelt National Park, North Dakota. A working draft. National Park Service.

Species are arranged by family and species. It is noted if the species is (1) known to be in the park and in the herbarium, (2) known to be in the park and not in the herbarium, (3) species possibly occurs in the park, confirmation is needed, or (4) exotic.

Marlow, Clayton B., Lynn R. Irby, and Jack E. Norland. 1982. Optimum carrying capacity for bison in Theodore Roosevelt National Park. A Report. National Park Service. 2 pages.

This current research is designed to (1) delineate primary and secondary areas of bison use, (2) delineate net primary productivity and forage utilization for major range sites within primary and secondary use areas, (3) determine the general seasonal food habits of bison, (4) determine range trends under present population density of bison and the maximum carrying capacity of primary use areas, and (5) integrate range trend and carrying capacity estimated with management priorities for bison. Only preliminary data was available at the time of this report.

General References

National Park Service. 1973. Final environmental statement. Proposed wilderness. Theodore Roosevelt National Memorial Park/North Dakota. 57 pages.

National Park Service. 1973. Master plan. Theodore Roosevelt National Memorial Park/North Dakota. 39 pages.

National Park Service. 1980. Theodore Roosevelt National Park/North Dakota. A brochure. 4 pages.

National Park Service. 1982. Statement for management. Theodore Roosevelt National Park/North Dakota. 36 pages.

WIND CAVE
National Park
South Dakota

Wind Cave National Park is located on the southeastern flank of the Black Hills. The park preserves a distinctly different type of limestone cavern. It is a series of subterranean passages and rooms, some lined with colorful calcite crystal formations. Strong currents of air that blow alternately in and out of the cave suggested its name. The park also preserves a part of the original Black Hills prairie ecosystem.

Wind Cave National Park was established in 1903. It now contains 28,292.1 acres (11,454.3 hectares). Federal land totals 28,060.0 acres (11,360.3 hectares). Prairie occupies about 23,201 acres (9,393 hectares), or over 82% of the park (Figure 29). Pine forest occupies the remaining area.

Figure 29. Vegetation map, Wind Cave National Park.

Kuchler Vegetation Type: A mosaic of Wheatgrass—Needlegrass (Agropyron—Stipa) and Black Hills Pine Forest (Pinus) (Map Nos. 17 and 66)

Present Vegetation and Prairie Management History

Historically, grazing and fire were important influences on the prairie vegetation. A few areas were cultivated but cultivation was stopped many years ago. These disturbed areas are undergoing natural succession. The area has been more or less continuously grazed. Before the late 1800's, nomadic bison and other herbivores were important. In more recent times, resident herds of bison and elk have exerted the major grazing pressure on the vegetation. Other animals, such as prairie dogs and pronghorns, are also important.

At least 79 lightning fires and 33 fires caused by man were suppressed in and near the park from 1930 through 1974. Most were extinguished while small. The largest fire burned 5,466 acres (2,213 hectares) of forests and grasslands within the Park in September 1964. Experiments have been conducted with prescribed burning during the past ten years.

Prescribed burning has been used to reduce the number of woody plants and to control a variety of exotic range plants, such as Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis) and Japanese brome (Bromus japonicus). Another problem weed has been Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense). Spot treatment with herbicides has been used as a control technique.

Prairie vegetation at Wind Cave National Park has been described by range site. A range site is a distinctive kind of land that differs from other kinds in its potential to produce native plants. A range site is the produce of all environmental factors responsible for its development. Descriptions of the range sites, their vegetation, and acreages are as follows:

Overflow. This range site occurs along the intermittent streams that dissect the park and it occupies 1,329 acres (538 hectares). Soils in this range site regularly benefit from more than normal soil moisture and the climax plant cover is dominated by a stand of tall and midgrasses. The principal grasses are big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), little bluestem, western wheatgrass, and green needlegrass. Forbs and a few shrubs are common. With continued overuse by grazing animals, the tall and midgrasses lose vigor and are replaced by bluegrasses and forbs.

Stoney Hills. This site occupies 2,729 acres (1,104 hectares) and is found on rolling hills. Climax cover is dominated by bluestems. Other important grasses are western wheatgrass, green needlegrass, and blue grama. Forbs such as sageworts, slimflower scurfpea (Psoralea tenuiflora), dotted gayfeather, and black samson are common. Leadplant and wild rose (Rosa arkansana) are abundant shrubs. With overuse, the palatable grasses are replaced by fringed sagewort and blue grama.

Silty. This site occurs in many of the open parks in the Black Hills and on nearly level to hilly uplands in the prairie. Wind Cave National Park contains 7,449 acres (3,014 hectares) of silty range site. Climax plant cover is dominated by a stand of midgrasses. Principal grasses are western wheatgrass, green needlegrass, needleandthread, blue grama, and Kentucky bluegrass. The most common forbs are fringed sagewort, slimflower and silverleaf scurfpea, and upright prairie coneflower (Ratibida columnifera). Shrubs are infrequent. With continued overuse by grazing animals, the midgrasses decrease and are replaced by blue grama and fringed sagewort.

Clayey. This site occurs on gently sloping to steep uplands on 895 acres (362 hectares), mostly in the northeastern portion of the park. Climax plant cover is dominated by a mixture of short and midgrasses with a number of prominent forbs. The principal grasses are western wheatgrass and green needlegrass with an understory of blue grama, buffalograss (Buchloe dactyloides), sedges, and bluegrasses. The principal forbs are fringed sagewort, silverleaf scurfpea, and upright prairie coneflower. Buffalograss will replace the taller species following overuse.

Shallow. This is the most abundant range site in the park, occupying 9,824 acres (3,976 hectares). It is situated on many of the steeper slopes and on the ridge tops throughout the park. Climax plant cover is dominated by little bluestem, which makes up 60% of the composition. Hairy grama (Bouteloua hirsuta), sideoats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), and threadleaf sedge make up about 20% of the composition. Forbs and shrubs are common. With overuse, short grasses and forbs become dominant.

Thin Upland. This site occurs on the middle and lower slopes of steep uplands in the northeastern part of the Park. It only covers 566 acres (229 hectares). Climax plant cover is a mixture of short and midgrasses. Blue grama and threadleaf sedge account for 50% or more of the herbage. Next in importance are midgrasses. Forbs are present but are not abundant.

Condition of the prairie varies all the way from poor to excellent. In general, it is in good condition. Management of grazing and wild animals has made it necessary to sacrifice the condition of some of the prairie. For example, areas occupied by prairie dogs are in poor condition.

Land Use and Vegetation Within One Mile of the Park Boundary

Lands surrounding Wind Cave National Park have vegetation similar to the prairie and forest within the park. Most of the land along the southern and eastern borders is privately owned, although one parcel is owned by the State of South Dakota. Custer State Park borders Wind Cave National Park on the north. United States Forest Service lands and private lands are located along the western boundary.

Prairie Research

Beginning in 1980 the National Park Service has produced a annual summary of research activities at Wind Cave National Park.

Albertson, F. W. 1953. A report of study of grassland areas of Badlands National Monument, South Dakota; Fort Robinson Military Reservation, Nebraska; North and South Units of Theodore Roosevelt National Memorial Park, North Dakota; and Wind Cave National Park, South Dakota. A Report. 61 pages.

Dr. Albertson surveyed the vegetation of Wind Cave National Park in 1953. He identified and described the vegetation as related to topography. He recorded similar species to those present today. He noted severe grazing near headquarters.

King, John A. 1955. Social behavior, social organization and population dynamics of a black-tailed prairie dog town in the Black Hills of South Dakota. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

This is a classic study on the social organization and ecology of black-tailed prairie dogs.

Soil Conservation Service. 1966. Conservation plan—soil and vegetation survey of Wind Cave National Park. A Report. Custer County Conservation District. United States Department of Agriculture.

This plan contains a history of the Wind Cave National Park. Range sites and woodland sites are identified. Important plant species, habitat use by animal species, and habitat condition trends for major animal species are presented for each site.

Lovaas, Allan L. 1973. A cooperative elk trapping program in Wind Cave National Park. The Wildlife Society Bulletin. 1:93-100.

A brief listing of prairie species and description of the climate of Wind Cave National Park is included in this article.

Lovaas, Allan L. 1973. Prairie dogs and black-footed ferrets in the National Parks, p. 139-148, In Black-footed ferret and prairie dog workshop. South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota.

Movement of prairie dogs into prairie is briefly discussed in this article.

Lovaas, Allan L. 1976. Introduction of prescribed burning to Wind Cave National Park. The Wildlife Society Bulletin. 4:69-73.

The history of fire at Wind Cave National Park is outlined. A map showing the locations of suppressed fires in and near the park from 1930-1974 is included. The coordinated approach utilized by land management agencies to introduce fire into the Black Hill is outlined.

Gartner, F. Robert. 1977. Ecological changes on pine grassland burned in fall and spring. Final report. South Dakota State University, Research and Extension Center, Rapid City, South Dakota. 28 pages.

This report summarizes research conducted by Dr. Gartner. Fuel loads were reduced by burning without producing a negative effect on vegetation and soils. The burned areas, therefore, provided fuel breaks for fire control during the first summer after burning. Warm season grasses were reduced on meadows by fall burning. Composition and yields of warm season grasses on meadows burned in the spring and unburned were not different. Percentage composition and yields of warm season grasses on slopes burned in the fall were less than on slopes burned in the spring. Yields of cool season grasses on meadows burned in fall were lower than those not burned or burned in the spring. Yields of cool season grasses on slopes burned in fall, spring, and not burned did not differ. Production of forbs and shrubs was greater on meadows burned in fall than those not burned or burned in the spring. Forb and shrub yields were greater on slopes burned in fall, and forbs increased on both fall and spring burned slopes compared with those not burned.

Schripsema, Janet Ruth. 1977. Ecological changes on pine—grassland burned in spring, late spring, and winter. M. S. Thesis. South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota.

Prescribed burning at Wind Cave National Park was effective in reducing total fuels and creating natural firebreaks suitable for controlling wildfires. In grasslands, this may be effective until the mulch layer is replaced after four or five growing seasons. Burning reduced or eliminated dense pine thickets. Forage for wildlife was produced on these areas where there was little or no usable forage before burning. Burning retarded the spread of pine into grasslands. Season of burning is related directly to the management objective.

Varland, Kenneth L., Allan L. Lovaas, and Robert B. Dahlgren. 1978. Herd organization and movements of elk in Wind Cave National Park, South Dakota. Natural Resources Report Number 13. National Park Service, Washington, D.C. 28 pages.

This report includes a description of the prairie vegetation and of the park. Elk herds should be managed individually to prevent overuse of the range in any one area of the Park.

Worcester, Lynda Lou. 1979. Effects of prescribed burning at different fuel moisture levels on vegetation and soils of grasslands in Wind Cave National Park. M. S. Thesis. South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota.

A little bluestem community and a mixed grass community were studied. Three fuel moisture levels were imposed on these communities; dry, medium, and wet with 30, 38, and 46% moisture, respectively. Comparison of preburn and postburn vegetative measurements indicated that fuel moisture levels examined did not have adverse effects on recovery, yield, or species composition.

Wydevan, Adrian P. 1979. Elk food habits and range interactions with other herbivores in Wind Cave National Park. M. S. Thesis. Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa.

This thesis contains a good description of the natural features of Wind Cave National Park. Yields of prairie species on different sites were determined. Cudweed sagewort was the major species eaten by elk in fall and winter. Threadleaf sedge was the major species consumed in the spring. Big bluestem was the major species grazed in the summer. Management recommendations for wildlife and vegetation are presented.

Bock, Jane H. and Carl E. Bock. 1981. Some effects of fire in vegetation and wildlife in ponderosa pine forests of the southern Black Hills. Final report. Department of Environmental, Population, and Organismic Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado.

Effects of prescription burns upon vegetation, birds, rodents, and bison were studied for three years in ponderosa pine forest and pine—grassland ecotone. Prescription fires were cool and largely restricted to understory vegetation and fuels. Densities of immature pines were reduced, and herbaceous ground cover was slightly increased. Grasses were generally unaffected. Birds, rodents, and bison showed strong positive responses to the prescription burns, but only through the first year of post fire succession.

Cappock, David Layne. 1981. Impacts of black-tailed prairie dogs on vegetation in Wind Cave National Park. M. S. Thesis. Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado.

Studies were conducted in the mixed grass prairie of Wind Cave National Park to examine the effects of different durations of prairie dog impact on plant standing crops, composition, species diversity, and nitrogen concentration. Prairie dogs extensively modified the prairie. Long-term (12 years) impacts of prairie dogs dramatically altered plant community structure. Substantial reductions in the litter layer suggests that prairie dogs could indirectly alter energy flow to decomposers. The only clear effect of prairie dogs on plant species diversity was noted for an Andropogon community where moderate (3-8 years) impacts of prairie dogs increased species diversity for total vegetation, grasses, and forbs.

Dalsted, K. J., S. Sather Blair, B. K. Worcester, and R. Klukas. 1981. Application of remote sensing to prairie dog management. Journal of Range Management. 34:218-223.

Remote sensing was used to determine the likely expansion potential and probable direction of growth of the 11 major prairie dog towns in the Wind Cave National Park. The prairie dog town inventory and expansion potential of each town has probable usefulness in the development of management plans.

Popp, Jewel Kay. 1981. Range ecology of bison on mixed grass prairie at Wind Cave National Park. M. S. Thesis. Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa.

Mixed herds of bison preferred cool season sites and avoided warm season sites for all of their activities throughout the year. Cool season graminoids, such as bluegrasses, sedges, and western wheatgrass, usually dominated bison diets. The proportion of warm season grasses, such as gramas, buffalograss, and bluestems, increased during summer. Forbs and browse were a minor portion of bison diets.

General References

National Park Service. 1977. Visitor center interpretive plan. Wind Cave National Park/South Dakota. 22 pages.

National Park Service. 1978. Wind Cave National Park/South Dakota. A brochure. 2 pages.

National Park Service. 1981. Statement for management. Wind Cave National Park/South Dakota. 11 pages.

National Park Service. Resource management plan. Undated. Wind Cave National Park/South Dakota.