Incarceration of Japanese Americans

The original caption for this photograph, taken by photographer Dorothea Lange for the War Relocation Authority, reads: San Francisco, California. Japanese family heads and persons living alone, form a line outside Civil Control Station located in the Japanese American Citizens League Auditorium at

Full Citation: Photograph 210-G-A530; San Francisco, California. Japanese family heads and persons living alone form a line outside Civil Control Station; 4/25/1942; Central Photographic File of the War Relocation Authority, 1942 - 1945; Records of the Wa

Incarceration of Japanese Americans and "Enemy Aliens"

During WWII, fear and prejudice led to the suspicion of American citizens. President Franklin D. Roosevelt's Executive Order 9066 resulted in the relocation of 120,000 people of Japanese descent, including 70,000 U.S. citizens, to internment camps. Immigrants from Japan and Italy in Richmond were labeled "enemy aliens."

Richmond's Japanese American Experience

Forced Relocation and Internment

In April 1942, Japanese Americans in Richmond were forced to leave their homes and businesses, first relocating to Tanforan Assembly Center and then to Topaz Relocation Center in Utah. This abrupt process caused significant financial and emotional distress, as families had little time to manage their properties.

Life in Internment Camps

At the Topaz Relocation Center, internees faced harsh conditions, living in cramped barracks with minimal privacy and inadequate facilities. The camp's location in Utah's desert meant extreme temperatures and harsh weather, making daily life even more challenging. Families often shared small living spaces with other families, further straining their living conditions.

Despite these adversities, Japanese Americans at Topaz worked hard to build a sense of community. They established schools to ensure children continued their education and organized cultural and recreational activities to maintain morale. Art classes, sports, and religious services were some of the ways they fostered a community spirit, providing a semblance of normalcy in an otherwise oppressive environment.

The constant presence of barbed wire fences and armed guards was a stark reminder of their imprisonment. Internees had to navigate a life under surveillance, with restricted movements and a lack of freedom. Despite these restrictions, the community's resilience and adaptability shone through as they sought to create meaningful lives under confinement.

Economic and Emotional Impact

The forced relocation led to devastating economic consequences, as many families had to sell their properties at a fraction of their value, losing their life savings and livelihoods. The emotional toll was profound, with families torn apart and the stigma of being labeled "enemy aliens" adding to the psychological burden. Despite these challenges, the resilience and strength of the Japanese American community shone through.

Legislative Actions and Historical Context

Establishing Communities and Pre-War Challenges

Between 1861 and 1940, approximately 275,000 Japanese immigrated to the U.S., establishing communities despite restrictive laws and racism. By 1940, Japanese Americans produced over 10% of California’s farm resources. However, the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 intensified fears and racism, leading to increased pressure to remove Japanese Americans from the West Coast.

Implementation of Executive Order 9066

The West Coast was divided into military zones, and Executive Order 9066 authorized the exclusion of civilians. This led to curfews, voluntary evacuations, and eventually the forcible relocation of approximately 122,000 Japanese Americans to internment camps. Nearly 70,000 of these evacuees were American citizens who faced imprisonment without charges or the ability to appeal.

Legal Challenges and Military Service

Despite legal challenges, the Supreme Court upheld the government’s actions. Over 30,000 Japanese Americans served in the armed forces during WWII in segregated units.

Post-War Compensation Efforts

Initial Attempts

After WWII, various efforts were made to compensate Japanese Americans for the losses and injustices they endured during their internment. The Japanese American Evacuation Claims Act of 1948 provided token payments for property losses, but these efforts were limited and did not fully address the broader injustices experienced.

The Civil Liberties Act of 1988

Compensation efforts culminated with the passage of Public Law 100-383, known as the Civil Liberties Act of 1988. This law officially acknowledged the injustices suffered by Japanese Americans during WWII. It included a formal apology from the U.S. government and provided $20,000 in compensation to each surviving person who was incarcerated. The Act recognized that the internment was a grave injustice based on racial prejudice, wartime hysteria, and a failure of political leadership.

Ongoing Reflections

The passage of the Civil Liberties Act of 1988 was a significant milestone, but it also prompted ongoing reflection and discussions about racial prejudice, civil rights, and government accountability. The Act serves as a reminder of the importance of protecting civil liberties and ensuring that such injustices do not happen again. It also highlights the need for vigilance in addressing and rectifying racial and ethnic discrimination in all its forms.

Learn More

• Terminology and the Mass Incarceration of Japanese Americans during WWII
• Executive Order 9066: Resulting in Japanese-American Incarceration (1942)

For detailed historical context and additional information, visit the National Archives.