Lesson 3: Entangled Education Inequalities in World War II

Putting Japanese Incarceration Schools and Mexican American School Segregation in Conversation

Sylvia Mendez and Aki and Kazi Munemitsu are tied together because they lived in the same place. They also suffered discrimination in the United States in the twentieth century. The three girls tried to get a good education but could not because of their heritage and the color of their skin. Students learning about their experiences can get a sense of the inequalities in American history and how people insisted on equal opportunities.

This lesson is based on the articles in the Entangled Inequality Series. Students can do the lesson after they complete Lesson 1 and Lesson 2 in the series or otherwise learn about school segregation in California and life in the Japanese Incarceration camps. In this lesson, students will compare the two and consider what can be learned from Sylvia's and Aki and Kazi’s experiences. This lesson can be taught as part of a unit on World War II, Civil Rights, or Civics. You can find more lessons on Teaching with Historic Places.

Left image
Sylvia Mendez at eight years old, a year into the court case Westminster v Mendez et al. Her parents were plaintiffs on behalf of her and her siblings.
Credit: “Sylvia Mendez.” Duke University 1944. Wikicommons.

Right image
Part of a photo of twins Kazuko and Akiko Munemitsu show off the girls’ American baby dolls. The Munemitsus were forcibly relocated to Poston, Arizona.
Credit: Courtesy of Janice Munemitsu and Chapman University, Frank Mt. Pleasant Library of Special Collections and Archives.

Lesson Objectives:

1. Connect different examples of education inequalities in American history by thinking about Mexican school segregation and Japanese incarceration for children.
2. Consider these historical cases of inequality with the values and ideals of the United States during and after World War II.

Essential Question:

How have different people fought discrimination in the United States? How can you fight discrimination in the United States?

Warm Up: Equal Education for All

Read the following piece of the decision from Mendez et al v Westminster (1947): 

“The equal protection of the laws’ pertaining to the public school system in California is not provided by furnishing in separate schools the same technical facilities, textbooks and courses of instruction to children of Mexican ancestry that are available to the other public-school children regardless of their ancestry. A paramount requisite in the American system of public education is social equality. It must be open to all children by a unified school association regardless of lineage.”

-- Mendez et al. v. Westminster School Dist. Of Orange County et al. 64 F. Supp. 544 (S.D. Cal. 1946). District Court S. D. California, Central Division. February 18, 1946.

1. How does this remind you of what you learned in the story of Sylvia Mendez?

2. Even though this is talking about the Mendez family and other Mexican American children, how does this ruling remind you of the story of the Munemitsu sisters in the Poston Incarceration Camp?

3. What do you think the court means by “A paramount requisite in the American system of public education is social equality?” What does social equality mean to you?

Background Reading

Teacher Tip: Instead of the background reading, we suggest using Entangled Inequalities. Below is a brief summary of the relationship between the two young women and what they each experienced but it is not a substitute for doing the previous lessons and/or allowing students to explore the Entangled Inequalities articles, which gives greater depth.

The United States has a long history of public education, but it has not always been open to everyone. Education is mostly controlled by state governments. Different states have, at different times, made laws that discriminate against minoritized people. These laws include sending students to separate schools, putting them in separate classes, or providing them with fewer resources.

In California, different communities made decisions to exclude students of Mexican heritage. School officials justified this exclusion by claiming there were language differences. But this was not always true. Many children of Mexican heritage had been living in California for generations. Others, like Sylvia Mendez, were the first generation born in the United States and spoke fluent English. School officials judged Sylvia and other children based on the color of their skin and their last name. They sent these children to separate schools. The schools taught English and skills for physical work instead of academic subjects. Sylvia’s parents, along with other Mexican American families, challenged the policy in court in 1943. In 1947, the US Court of Appeals ruled the separation of students based on background was illegal.

Some educational inequalities were the result of national decisions. In 1942, President Franklin Roosevelt forcibly relocated people of Japanese descent from the West Coast of the United States to 10 incarceration camps. This disrupted the education of thousands of children, most of whom were American citizens. In addition to the trauma of being moved, the camps were not ready for the students. Internees spent the first few months building the schools. Teacher turnover was high, particularly among white teachers. Students had to fundraise to get basic supplies like paper and books. For Aki Munemitsu and her siblings, this was a far cry from their California school. When the war ended, the government allowed them to go home and try to rebuild their lives. Many did not return to the west coast, but the Munemitsus did.

These are two instances of disruption and segregation in schools throughout America. There have been other court cases, laws, and protests in the past seventy-five years to try to make things more equal. As you research and review these cases, think about where the country has succeeded—and where there is more work to do.

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Teacher Tip: The following activities are longer and require student planning and writing. In order to complete this lesson within a 45 minute to 1 hour class period, they can be provided as a choice board or one could be selected based on your ELA and Social Studies Standards.

One of the over 250 letters to Clara Breed. This one is from Elizabeth Kikuchi, Arcadia California on April 25, 1942.

Letter to Clara Breed from Elizabeth and David Kikuchi, Arcadia California April 25, 1942. Courtesy of Japanese American National Museum.

Activity 1: Connecting through Letters

During World War II, Clara Breed and other people of different backgrounds who were not incarcerated tried to organize and petition to free Japanese Americans. Breed contacted her congressmen, wrote articles to raise awareness and organized advocacy groups. But Breed also wrote letters to incarcerated students directly and encouraged them to write back. She felt it would help them to know they were not alone and that she supported them. One child wrote back, saying “Thank you Miss Breed, for asking questions because it has helped me a lot.” Curiosity, empathy, and genuine interest helped them feel less alone.

Imagine you are Sylvia Mendez or Aki and Kazi Munemitsu. You have a connection to another student your age by the house you live(d) in and shared struggles against discrimination. Write a letter to the other girl. In this letter, write in the first person. Describe the experience of school segregation or Japanese incarceration. Imagine how it felt and provide specific historical examples to illustrate that feeling. Then reach out and ask questions or empathize with the person you are writing to. Draw connections between their experiences.

Activity 2: Writing an Amicus Brief- Equality for One, Equality for All 

Teacher Tip: This is an advanced lesson, both because of the language found in legal documents and the amount of research and writing that could be required. Think about the benefits of practicing this type of research and argumentative writing and modify the assignment to meet your standards.

Prominent civil rights groups supported Mendez' lawsuit against the Westminster School District. This included LULAC (League of United Latin American Citizens) and other Latino groups. But the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), Japanese and Jewish civil rights groups also supported the case. They wrote documents called “Amicus Curiae” briefs or "Friend of the Court" briefs. These support one side of the case and add a broader perspective, arguing that a particular decision is good for the whole country. Consider the framing of the introduction from the NAACP’s amicus brief. It was co-written by future Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall. He used reasoning he would later use what arguing Brown v. Board of Education.

From the Amicus Brief:

“The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People is a membership organization which has for thirty-five years has continuously advocated full citizenship rights, both civil and political, for all American citizens…This court, as will more fully appear in the accompanying brief, is here tasked to determine whether the Federal Constitution prohibits a state from maintaining segregation on a racial basis in its public school facilities. This question is of supreme importance to the integrity of our national institutions and the vitality of our way of life, both of which are uncompromisingly opposed to distinctions and differences based on considerations of race, creed or national origin.”

–From the Amicus Brief from the NAACP, 1945. Students who want a model can explore the full brief.

Question to Consider

What do you notice about the stakes of the argument?

Activity

Write an amicus curiae brief supporting either the Mendez family or the Munemitsu family in their efforts to access equal education. In one or two paragraphs explain why the whole United States would benefit if this form of discrimination ended. Your argument should include the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution. It should also include specific details from both cases. One important thing that Amicus briefs do is draw connections to historical precedents (other examples from history). You may use primary and secondary sources from the previous lessons and/or do additional research to support your case.

Mural commissioned by Justice Eileen Moore for the California Court of Appeals, Fourth District in Santa Ana, California and created by students from the Orange County Department of Education’s Alternative, Community, and Correctional Schools and Services (ACCESS), Otto A. Fischer School.

Student artists: Andrew K., Kaylee F., Jose C., Abraham V., Stacy Lynn R., and Juan G. Teachers: Ruth Rosen and Sam Lightbody.

Activity 3: Art and Memory  

Public art like murals and monuments help people remember and reconsider historical events. Because art can be abstract or symbolic, there are different possibilities. This mural was commissioned by Justice Eileen Moore for the California Court of Appeals in Santa Ana, California. Santa Ana is in the same county as Westminster, where Sylvia Mendez was trying to go to school. The mural was done by students who were incarcerated within the Orange County Juvenile Hall.

Explore the Mural

Read more about the creation of the mural and the symbols chosen by the students in Visualizing Injustice. As you read through the article, consider the following questions:

1. What is the goal of the mural?

2. What details, symbols and artistic decisions like composition or color stand out to you? How do they make you feel?

3. How does this mural impact your understanding of Mendez v Westminster?

Activity

Teacher Tip: Depending on time and resources in your classroom, you can ask for more detail or artistry. You may choose to have the students explain their idea or you may bring in craft materials for them to complete a full artistic rendering of their design.

Design a piece of public art to help people remember either the Mendez children or Munemitsu children's experience with education inequalities. You can create a monument or memorial, which often takes the form of a sculpture. You can create a mural or a painting. Think about where you want the art to go, what you want it to communicate, and how you want a viewer to interact with it. Sketch or design your piece of public art. Include a 3-6 sentence artist statement that explains some of the choices you’ve made about the design and what they represent.

Further Resources:

In addition to the Entangled Inequalities articles, you can learn more and get involved with education equality through the following resources.

Listen to the Deeper Learning Podcast from the Orange County Department of Education on

• Episode 1: Mendez v Westminster

• Episode 2: Aki’s Story: On Relocation and Resilience

Read Sylvia and Aki by Winifred Conkling, a fictional story about the real lives of Sylvia Mendez and Aki Munemitsu.

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This article was written by Alison Russell, an Educator and Consulting Historian with the Cultural Resources Office of Interpretation and Education. It was funded by the National Council on Public History’s cooperative agreement with the National Park Service.